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January is for Warm Soups

Fri, 23 Jan 2026 13:23:25 GMT

Well, winter certainly has us in its grip. The "holidays" have come and gone. It is easy to fall into the doldrums in January. I think January is the hardest month for me on the farm. Work wise, it is not the busiest. Sheep are all at the barn --no daily fence moves. Breeding season has ended, which means less barn work as breeding groups have been broken down and we are back to two main barn groups. There is no fence maintenance and no garden work. You might think I am on holiday! Haha. There may be less outdoor physical work, yes, but there is still plenty to be done. Lots of desk work: grant applications, planning for changes in infrastructure, mobile shade shelter planning, figuring out how to complete silvo-pasture projects, sheep registrations, etc, etc.

A welcome distraction comes in the form of our farmer type annual meetings and grazing conferences— most of which happen over winter, as most farmers are on a bit of "down-time" or at least a bit more flexible schedule. Gathering with fellow farmers can really give you a lift out of the January doldrums; I really enjoy these opportunities to further community building while learning ways to improve what we do here on the farm.

Ok, so January is for "hygge": finding joy in simple, cozy moments, emphasizing warmth, comfort, contentment, and togetherness, often through creating a pleasant atmosphere with good company (or quiet solitude), comfort food/drinks, and relaxation, fostering well-being and happiness. It's about being present, slowing down, and appreciating life's quieter pleasures, translating to coziness, charm, and conviviality. Sitting by the wood stove with a warm bowl of soup after morning barn chores is one of my favorite ways to find joy in January. I hope you all are well and finding your own hygge this winter. I leave you with a wonderful recipe for an Icelandic lamb soup. I copied it directly from the Icelandic Lamb website, which has a multitude of fabulous recipes.

Be well and eat lots of good, local food.

Icelandic lamb soup „Kjötsúpa“

Ingredients

850 gr / 30 oz of bone in pieces of lamb, preferably from the forequarter.

1,8 l. / 61 fl. oz. water

50 gr. / 2 oz. Pearl barley

8 pcs. Medium size potatoes

1 pcs. Rutabaga

6 pcs. Medium size carrots

4 oz. White cabbage

2-3 leaves dried Lovage

Icelandic Sea salt flakes

White pepper

Place the lamb and water in a pot and bring to a boil on medium heat. Start prepping the vegetables by peeling and cutting the potatoes, Rutabaga, Carrots- and cabbage. Rustic cut works just fine in this case.

When boiling point is reached start skimming for fat and any froth that rises to the surface, a slow simmer is preferable throughout the cooking time. Continue skimming 2-3 times for the first 20 minutes. Add the potatoes, barley and carrots and cook for another 10 minutes. Add the cabbage, rutabaga and lovage and continue simmering for 30 minutes. Season with salt and pepper and serve in large bowls.

Rams: How to Respect, Love, and be the Boss of them!

Tue, 15 Apr 2025 19:50:18 GMT

Tough Love for Rams

This is an excellent article written by Brooke and Lois Moore.

We originally created this document to accompany rams who were sold from our farm, but over time, it has been shared with many shepherds.

Although this brand of tough love is not unique to our farm and flock, or even to sheep, these principles have allowed us to live comfortably with our rams for many years.

Many people believe that rams are inherently dangerous and shouldn’t be given attention, but some of them can be very affectionate for their whole lives.

Congenial, and even close, relationships with the shepherd are very possible as long as the ram understands, and wholeheartedly believes, that the shepherd is the “alpha ram”.

It is our premise that badly behaved rams are made, not born. This is not to say that some rams are not more challenging than others. It is especially important to note that rams who have been brought up to be respectful in the flocks of their birth, can still be rendered dangerous by poor choices on the part of the shepherds into whose flocks they move as adults.

We would emphasize the importance of prevention: From the time that they are lambs, all rams need to be taught (and reminded) that they are subordinate to the shepherd, and that they must NEVER challenge that fact!

They have to understand (in the core of their being) that there are RULES that cannot be violated. To make matters more difficult, ram-lambs are often the most friendly and charming, but it is vital not to allow them to ever “demand” attention. However subtle, this can be the first stage to an undesirable shift in dominance.

* We should mention here that the behavior of an adult ram who is dangerously aggressive to people is unlikely to be corrected by any means, and unfortunately the best and safest course may be euthanasia.

THE RULES:

• Rams (including lambs) must not ever butt or paw for attention, or press their heads against you, or push another sheep out of the way in order to dominate your attention.

• A ram must never approach a human with his head down, and should not “bob” his head. He must never back up, and feint a charge (as young ones do with the older rams).

• Jumping up on people is absolutely forbidden, no matter how cute a little ram-lamb might be at the time.

• A ram should always move away from you when asked to do so.

• Ideally, a ram should not enter the shepherd’s comfort zone without being invited. If he does approach the shepherd, the ram must stand quietly, and wait for a pat or a word.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES

It is in the genetic nature of every ram to understand the hierarchy of his living situation. Any ram who moves into a new farm needs to know immediately “who is in charge”. In some way or another, depending on his personality, he is going to test the situation to determine his authority. This applies to all other sheep in the flock, but also applies to his new shepherds.

Unfortunately many rams move to new homes in the fall, as breeding season approaches, and when their hormone levels are rising. Placing the ram with or near ewes, and/or feeding grain, only intensifies their stress, and desire to control their environment.

Although most well-brought-up rams will automatically be submissive to humans, in the stress of a new environment, some may test the shepherd. This would not usually be an aggressive attack, but head-bobbing or other warnings may be used to solicit a reaction.
Under any circumstances, it is critically important that the shepherd respond immediately, and confidently, to any threats or displays of dominance toward humans.

An inexperienced shepherd may not sense that they are being tested, and may inadvertently jeopardize their authority. For example, showing fear, backing away, avoiding the ram, or trying to ply the ram with treats can send the message to the ram that the human feels subordinate.

Once a ram believes that he is dominant over the shepherd, there is a serious potential for dangerous behavior. Once an adult ram is truly aggressive toward people, he may never be completely trustworthy again. It is vital to prevent this sort of escalation.

AVOIDING PROBLEMS

• UNDER NO CIRCUMSTANCES SHOULD A RAM LIVE ALONE. In the boredom of isolation from other sheep, rams will find ways to take out their frustrations by bashing buildings, butting people or other animals, jumping over or destroying fences, etc. Wethers make excellent companions, but we recommend having more than one when keeping a single ram.

•We never feed grain to rams. This sort of high octane feed tends to make them more excitable. Shetland sheep as a group, really do not need grain feeds, but do best on a quality grass hay.

•We do not ever give food treats to rams. Once treats are expected, the ram’s eagerness to get them can lead to impatience with the giver...and he may respond with butting behavior.

• NEVER pet a ram on the top of his head....they can consider this a challenge and it tends to make them butty. Rams should always be “chin up”.

•Be aware of what the ram is doing at all times. When entering the ram’s pen or pasture, it is a good idea to keep him in your field of vision.

• Never strike a ram...he may consider this a provocation, especially if one hits them on or about the head. They think: "This human is fighting like a ram....and well, it doesn't hurt that much”...so the uppity ram becomes even more interested in the confrontation.

•In breeding season, never use just a single fence to separate rams from ewes, or from other rams. For breeding pens, the perimeter should be made of a solid material, so that the rams can’t see each other. But if there is no visual barrier, we feel that they should be separated by a distance of 50 feet or more, depending on their personalities.

•In the off-season, the spacing separating rams and ewes can be only a few feet, and at these times, see-through fences are fine. Some folks run rams and ewes together for a couple of months in summer, but we never have felt comfortable enough to do this.

EXPLANATIONS & DISCIPLINE

LAMBS:

Those who violate “the RULES” (see above) can be disciplined more mildly than older rams, but never less definitely. The idea is that they learn immediately that they are not in charge.

For any undesirable behavior, push the lamb away with a firm “No”, even if you are smiling inside.

If “No” doesn’t get the idea across, pick the ram-lamb up in a way that is uncomfortable for him...allow him to dangle until he feels frightened...all the while, saying “no” or giving some other verbal reminder.

Alternatively....or if these methods don’t have an effect....you may move along to more serious dominance demonstrations. We flip the ram-lambs on their backs or sides, shouting “No!” This is physically easy while they are small, and one such treatment as a youngster often makes a lasting impression; that ram may not ever require another reminder!

ADULTS:

These dominance demonstrations are the same as those that dog trainers use. We have found that they are extremely effective ways of managing rams....for mild threats to humans, or for various other bad behaviors, such as barn or fence bashing. The goal is the same as that for naughty ram-lambs: to get them on their sides or backs (helpless) with you holding them down. You establish yourself as “alpha ram” and teach the delinquent ram that he must never question his lesser position to humans, or the requirements of living in a flock situation.

Do not attempt to discipline a truly dangerous ram; by the time a ram is fully grown, he is large enough and strong enough to injure a human. Therefore the techniques that we describe should only be used by a shepherd who is confident and skilled in handling sheep. The disciplining shepherd should out-match the ram in strength and weight; for some shepherds, even a half-grown ram presents too much of a physical challenge.

For the majority of well-brought up rams, no discipline in adulthood should be necessary. But for those who misbehave in a minor way, these methods provide a way to effectively make your point. Most importantly, you are armed with the confidence of your dominance, and can repeat the lesson if needed.

THE TECHNIQUES

1) You may use the classic shepherd’s maneuver for placing a sheep on its rump, but then move the ram to his side.

2) In the heat of the moment, you may grab the ram by whatever you can (a horn is easiest for some), but however you do it, be prepared to hold on. The horns can be used as a leverage point to flip the ram, but that is sometimes more difficult to do with the bigger boys.

3) As a point of interest, there is another method that may be easier on your body. After you have caught the ram, place him sideways to you (right against your thighs) and lean over his back, grab the far front leg and a handful of the skin in front of the far back leg and flip him as if you are shaking a rug, stepping back as you do it. He will go quickly onto his back. One wouldn't ever hold on to the skin or wool of a sheep otherwise, because it hurts them. But this is a lesson and need not be pleasant. This works especially well when one is irritated....adrenaline helps a lot!

After the ram is on his side/back, hold him with his head turned severely around to the side, and use a knee to hold him down, until he gives up struggling. If this is a first offense, the sense of helplessness may be all that is necessary. But if the ram has needed discipline more than once, also hold his nose for several seconds with one hand, with the other hand holding the head. Don’t hold their noses until they pass out...they lose enough brain cells on their own!

While the ram is down, shout at him! Shout something that you can use as a verbal reminder later. It may take more than one application of this treatment to make an impression, especially if the ram has decided that he can misbehave and still remain alive!

* Our thanks to Jerome, who volunteered for this demonstration, and politely submitted to the slow-motion series of photos without a single complaint. As a bonus, the ram-lambs who watched were definitely impressed.

We should mention that it is very rare for one of our adult rams to ever need this dominance demonstration. The lambs tend to grow up with good attitudes; Shetlands are intelligent and we believe that they learn by seeing the occasional reprimand.

The rams in our flock are calm and respectful, their good behavior inspired by their shepherds' "alpha ram" confidence.

May you and your ram be friends for life.

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Another terrific and informative article on keeping rams by a fellow Icelandic shepherd : RAMS- Respect Them but Don't Fear Them

AI: Basic Explanation of Scoring and Measurements

Tue, 15 Apr 2025 19:50:17 GMT

Judging info

The sires are evaluated and judged according to FAI judging standards. Points are given for individual body parts in following order:

Points: Head - neck and shoulders - chest and conformation - back - loin - gigot - wool - feets - harmony.

Score of 80,0 points is good for breeding ram and 85,0 points can be considered as excellent.

Ultrasound: Ultrasound measure of eye muscle thickness in mm and of back fat in mm - eye muscle shape score (1-5).
(H) Dutch ultrasound scanner, the type used by SOUTHAGRI.
(S) Scottish ultrasound scanner - which measures about 2mm lesser eye muscle thickness than the Dutch scanner. This difference is not corrected in individual figures.

Eye muscle shape: In autumn 1999 eye muscle shape grading started. The grading of the eye muscle describes how well the muscle keeps it´s thickness out over the backbone. The shape is graded from 1 to 5. The scale is following:

1. Poorly shaped eye muscle.
2. Fairly shaped eye muscle.
3. Adequately shaped eyemuscle..
4. Well shaped eye muscle.
5. Excellently shaped eye muscle.

Basic dictionary

Basic dictionary for the printed version of Southram's sire catalogue which is in Icelandic. Here you can find translation and/or explanation of the tables and graphs in the sire list.

Lambhrútaskoðun: Evaluation of ram progenies performed in September/October. Following items refers to the evaluation of the rams progenies:

Fjöldi: Number of evaluated ram lambs

Þungi: Average weight of evaluated ram lambs

Fótleggur: Average canon bone length of evaluated ram lambs

Læri: Average score for gigot muscling (highest possible score is 20, 16 is good, 17 is very good, 18 is excellent)

Ull: Average score for wool (8,0 refers to good wool quality and no tan fibers)

Ómvöðvi: Average thickness (depth) of the eye muscle in mm

Ómfita: Average fat thickness on the eye muscle in mm

Lögun: Average score for eye muscle shape (1 is poorly shaped muscle and 5 is excellently shaped muscle)

Following explanations refer to the graph for each ram.

Kynbótamat: Breeding value index (based on information from the sheep recording in Iceland. 100 is average)

Gerð: Meat qualities based on the carcass grading

Fita: Leanness based on carcass grading

Kjötgæði: Meat quality index (MQI), calculated from meat qualities (40%) and leanness (60%)

Frjósemi: Prolificacy of the daughters (for the young rams with few daughter records this index is mostly based on pedigree)

Mjólkurlagni: Milking abilities of the daughters (for the young rams with few daughter records this index is mostly based on pedigree)

Explanation of measurements & scoring

Generally data gathered on the rams is done in Iceland, in the fall, when they are around 18 months.
The data on the Icelandic Rams is then given in the following major categories:

1) Rams Name, Number, and Parents

2) Body Measurements- Weight and Lengths

3) Score

4) Ram Description

5) Production Results

Explanation

1) Rams Name, Number, and Parents
The rams are numbered as follows: The first two numbers in the ID number refer to the birth year of that ram. Thettir, # 91-931 was born in 1991.

2) Body Measurements- Weight and Length Measure:
Weight and measure is in the same sequence for every ram. There are four numbers given here representing-

Weight of the ram- A heavier the ram usually correlates to bigger, growthier offspring.
Chest Circumference- A measurement of body depth.
Width of Rack- The wider the rack, the greater the yield from this choice cut.
Cannon Bone (front leg) Length- A shorter cannon bone correlates with a meatier, faster finishing market lamb.

Example:

These are measurements for Thettir's 75-102-21-116, which means: These numbers represent as follows:

Weight: 75kg

Chest Circumference: 102cm

Width of Rack: 21cm

Front leg (cannon bone) length: 116mm

One kg = 2.2lbs, so in English units this would be: Thettir was 165 lbs. Chest circumference is always measured in cm, 1inch = 2.5cm so his chest was 40.8 inches. Rack is also measured in cm so his rack (measured from the transverse process to the other transverse process) measured 8.4inches. The leg (cannon bone) is measured in mm, ten mm=1cm or 1inch=25mm, so his leg measures 4.64inches.

3)Score: Individual Body Parts- Second Set of Numbers:
This is a way to judge and compare the ram based on the factors given:

This set of numbers are the points given for individual body parts. The numbers will always be in this order: Head - Neck and Shoulders - Chest and Springiness of Ribs - Back(Rack) - Loin - Leg - Wool - Feet. However, you will notice that some of the rams have 9 sets of scores and that one of the scores is over 10.

Explanation

Three or four years ago the scale was changed somewhat. The score for legs was doubled (probably to give added weight to the leg muscle- the most expensive cut) so to get comparable score to the guys that have less than 10 for legs, divide the high leg score by two. At the same time a new score was added for overall scoring of conformation taking into account length of body etc.

(Note- Front or front body refers to the whole front body, not just shoulders.)

4) Ram Description:
A straightforward description of the ram and his qualities. When the fleece is described the term "yellow" or "tan" refers to the reddish colored fiber seen most easily on white sheep and is called phaeomelanin. This shows up usually on the head and legs and sometimes in the body of the fleece. In Iceland, this is undesirable for processing as this fiber has to be sorted out of the white fiber and dyed. In the US we prize colored fleeces even those with a large amount of phaeomelanin.

5) Production Results:
Production results include:
Market Lambs average score- based on market lamb carcass, actual weight and grade
Production Years of Daughters- how productive was his offspring

Most (if not all) lambs in Iceland are born in May and June and are slaughtered in September/October..
The scale for market lambs (after slaughter) is from 0 to 5.
The scale for daughters is indexed where the average is 100 with a variance of 10.

Hypocalcemia

Tue, 15 Apr 2025 19:50:13 GMT

How to Recognize, Treat and Prevent It

Sue Reith

Purpose : This article is presented to provide information for sheep and goat owners that will enable them to avoid hypocalcemia. It was also written to encourage veterinarians that read this information , when called upon to treat does with the symptoms outlined below to ask, before making a diagnosis, a very simple, fundamental question: "What are you currently feeding this animal, and how much of each substance is being fed?"

Sheep /Goat Owners: Please feel free to give a copy of this article to your veterinarian.

How can I tell early on that my sheeep or goat has hypocalcemia?

Ask yourself: In the early months of pregnancy (or during lactation, if she is in milk) have I been feeding my doe a regular, ample grain ration along with her hay? And especially, have I been feeding this ample grain ration along with grass hay instead of alfalfa?

Signs to watch for any time from the 12th week of the pregnancy on:

Does the doe gradually or suddenly lose interest in her grain ration?
And soon after that, does she also lose interest in her hay ration?

If this is the case, and if no corrective action is taken quickly, you can expect the next signs to be: She weakens fast, acts lethargic, is depressed. Her rear legs appear wobbly. If this situation is allowed to progress without intervention, she goes down and won't get up. Her body temperature will be normal (102.3) when these signs first appear, but will drop to sub-normal (below 102) as they progress. These symptoms are classic for hypocalcemia. Without fast and correct intervention she will die.

What is hypocalcemia?

Hypocalcemia (calcium deficiency) is a serious condition in which the calcium that a doe needs to support herself and provide for the needs of her developing fetuses (or to produce milk if she is lactating) is unavailable to her because of incorrect feeding.

What steps can I take to correct this?

(Before continuing, I want to point out that any dosages I mention herein are intended for full-sized dairy-type does, weighing ~ 120-150 lbs avg. If the doe your are concerned about is of a smaller variety you will need to adjust recommended doses accordingly.)

Immediately, and time is of the essence here, start her on Nutridrench or oral propylene glycol to provide her with the necessary energy so that she will not become ketotic. (Ketosis is a metabolic problem caused by the animal's having to live on its own body reserves because it has stopped eating food. If not corrected, this will result in coma and subsequent death.). I recommend either the appropriate dose of Nutridrench for her weight, or 60cc propylene glycol, 2x daily for 2 days to restore her, with 30cc daily thereafter until she is clearly eating properly again, to prevent/reverse ketosis.

Then, start her on calcium replacement therapy quickly. While calcium gluconate is commonly used for this, I prefer a product called CMPK (or a generic substitute thereof), because calcium gluconate contains only calcium, whereas the CMPK products contain magnesium, phosphorus, and potassium as well, all of which make the calcium more readily available for the body to use. Logic tells us that calcium that is in combination with these other elements that make it work better will be able to correct the deficiency and restore the doe to health much faster than can a product that contains the same amount of calcium alone, with no enhancements. One caveat: keep in mind that a single dose, or only a few doses, of this product will ONLY balance the doe's calcium level FOR THE MOMENT, but those babies will continue to grow and to drain her system of the needed calcium and phosphorus, so you will need to continue the doses daily until she freshens and is eating sufficient amounts of properly balanced nutrients to enable her to lactate properly.

The CMPK should be given at the rate of 30cc (1oz) every 2 hours or so until she appears bright and alert and willing to eat once more. The reason we give this specific amount every two hours, instead of giving a larger dose less often, is because calcium, necessary for muscle contractions, plays a vital role in the proper beating of the heart. But the downside of that is that to give a larger dose all at once, particularly at the later stages of the treatment, might actually cause the heart to beat too rapidly and create further difficulties to add to the ones the doe is already experiencing. We avoid this potential for overdose by giving smaller amounts more often, as I recommend here. I advise people who are administering calcium to check its effect upon the patient's heart by periodically checking the heart rate of another, normal doe (70 - 80 beats per minute), and comparing it with that of your hypocalcemic doe. Initially the hypocalcemic doe's heart rate will be considerably slower than that of the normal doe because she lacks the calcium to keep it beating normally. When the treated doe's heart rate is the same as, or a tiny bit faster than, the normal doe's heart rate, things are going well.

After bringing her heart rate up to normal, she will need DAILY MAINTENANCE DOSES OF ~ 30cc (1oz), continuing UNTIL SHE FRESHENS, at which point she will no longer need to provide large amounts of calcium and other nutrients for the fast-growing fetuses within her. Should she start to deteriorate at any time before then, that amount should be increased appropriately, but oonly temporarily, until she is regulated once more. Hopefully, for future pregnancies this doe's diet will be corrected so that this disorder will not re-occur.

BTW: Once her calcium level has been regulated and she resumes eating, she will probably initially refuse any grain that is offered. That should not cause you concern because her instinct is still trying to regulate her calcium-deficient condition and she is the best monitor of that. In short order she will probably resume eating the grain again, at which time she should be limited to just a small amount at each feeding.

If she is not eager at first to eat her hay (grass is OK initially if that's what you have access to... Alfalfa or alfalfa pellets would be a really good choice now) you would be wise to bring her some of her favorite browse... I feed Salal up here in the Northwest, and the wild huckleberry, both of which stay green all winter... In your area there must be something yummy that, of course, is not toxic. If you don't know her favorite, give her a variety and let her choose.

If possible, it would be better to use injectable CMPK instead of the oral form to treat your doe. This is because: (a) It's always risky to dose a seriously debilitated animal orally as there is a potential for part of the fluids to end up in the lungs of the struggling animal, resulting in aspiration pneumonia, and (b) Calcium is, in concentrated form, somewhat caustic, and it will often burn the tender membranes of your goat's throat. The problem with my telling you this is that in their infinite wisdom the powers that be have decreed that injectable CMPK, while relatively inexpensive (about $4/1000ml in the catalogs) should be a prescription-only item, available therefore only under the guidance of a veterinarian. The down side of this is that in addition to an increased per-dose cost, many veterinarians, especially those that are not goat-oriented, may not understand hypocalcemia, or why continued doses are necessary. As a result they might be overly-cautious about its use and generally will only want to prescribe/provide a single dose, or perhaps two. This is tantamount to trying to fix a leaking dam by putting your finger in the hole to stop the water flow.

One additional, important note regarding treatment of your hypocalcemic doe:

While you are treating her, keep in mind that if this very weak and debilitated doe has been down for 3 or more days, it is essential that you get her back up on her feet ASAP. Otherwise her legs will quickly lose their muscle tone and be unable to support the heavy weight of her body if she tries to get up on her own. If she is allowed to remain down for too long a period, her leg joints may begin to 'ankylose', or freeze permanently in the bent position. This is irreversible. To prevent it you may have to create a makeshift 'sling', attaching it to a pulley that is fastened to an overhead beam in the barn. About every 2 hours the sling should be raised up so that she can touch the ground comfortably with her feet and move around, and then lowered again so she can rest for a while... The process should be repeated continuously, 2 hours up and 2 hours down, until she can once again support her body's weight with her own legs. This generally takes but a few days, though her pregnant condition may place an added burden upon her as she tries to get her strength back. If the reader wants a picture of a sling I have one in my archives, at sreith@qwest.net .

How could my pregnant goat get hypocalcemia? And how can I prevent it?

If your doe is still milking when she is bred, she will need to continue the ration you have been giving her to support her milk production. But if she is 'dry' (not lactating) when you breed her she will need little or no grain for the first 3 months of her pregnancy, as calcium is not yet required for support of fetal growth. You see, at 3 months the fetus is no bigger than a newborn baby kitten.

But once that first 90 days or so has passed, the now completely formed fetus starts to grow rapidly. It will continue to do so, making increasingly greater demands for calcium to achieve that, over the next 8 weeks. So it's appropriate at that point to begin giving a small amount of alfalfa with the grass hay, increasing it gradually until at the time of freshening she is getting all alfalfa, which in my view should be continued for the length of time she remains in milk. The feeding of alfalfa should taper off only as her milk production tapers off, until she reaches the end of that lactation, at which time she can once again be given all grass hay.

At that same 90 day (3-month) point when you start giving the pregnant doe alfalfa, you should also start offering a small amount of grain, no more than a handful at a feeding. It should be increased slowly over the next 60 days (2 months) so that by the time the animal freshens she is getting maybe a cup in the morning and a cup at night. Then, depending on the amount of milk the doe is giving per milking, you should increase the grain so that she is getting enough to help produce the milk but not make her fat. A pound of grain is usually recommended for 8 lbs (~ a gallon) of milk. I add alfalfa pellets to a doe's grain to keep her busy while I milk her out.

The cause of this hypocalcemia (calcium deficiency) problem that can show up in a doe anytime in the last 6-8 weeks of pregnancy is very basic. How best to explain it? Let's see... Most of us know that water is made up of a ratio of 2 parts Hydrogen to 1 part oxygen (H2:0). If you don't have that ratio, you don't have water. And some of us, particularly those among us that are raising goats in copper-deficient areas, understand that a ratio of 10 parts copper to 1 part molybdenum (10:1) is essential in order for copper to be available for our goats. Following that line of thinking, a ratio of 2 parts calcium to 1 part phosphorus (2:1) is needed to make calcium available to us, AND to our pregnant/lactating goats. If we don't have 2 parts of calcium for every 1 part of phosphorus, calcium isn't available. So you can see now how important it is that all of these ratios remain in balance. When they are not, the substance we need will not be available to us. In line with this, the goat must be provided with a ratio of at least 2 parts calcium (abundant in alfalfa) to 1 part phosphorus (abundant in grain) to make the calcium available to her that she must have to support herself as well as the rapid fetal development within her uterus (or a lactating udder). If her owners do not provide the correct balance for her in the feed she is given, she will become hypocalcemic (calcium-deficient).

At the beginning of the gestation, before the babies start demanding a lot of calcium so they can grow within her, a mature doe (not a yearling, however, that is herself still growing) can survive on an unbalanced diet heavy in phosphorus (in grain) and virtually devoid in calcium (in alfalfa),
generally without serious consequences. But when suddenly at 3 months into her gestation her body starts needing lots of calcium for the babies' growth, with that same unbalanced diet she's been getting all along the calcium will not be available! Even if she were getting lots of good alfalfa along with that ample grain ration, she simply would not have the rumen capacity to eat enough alfalfa to achieve the 2:1 balance necessary to release sufficient calcium to meet the demands of her own body AND the rapidly growing fetuses inside of her. Her amazing instinct tells her to cut back on the grain to free up calcium from the hay. Well, when she stops eating that large amount of high-energy grain she has become accustomed to, she quickly becomes nutritionally deprived, in addition to the calcium deficiency she is already experiencing. She weakens fast, becomes lethargic and wobbly, and goes down, and owners and consulting vets stand around scratching their heads, not realizing what led up to this, and try to figure out what's wrong. They (might) offer her Nutridrench or propylene glycol to correct the ketotic situation she finds herself headed for (or in), and then they wonder why she continues to get weaker and weaker, not realizing her problem is that the mismanagement of her feeding program has deprived her of much needed calcium, vital not only for the babies' development, but for her own muscle tone as well. No calcium, no muscle tone, no heart pumping, dead goat.

I can't find anything in the goat books about this disease. Where can I get more information?

Hypocalcemia is a correctable metabolic disorder (condition), and not a disease. Regarding the lack of resource material covering this disorder, I will say that I have been making a valiant effort to encourage the veterinarians who write these books to update their work to include it, but progress is slow. While most of goat management coverage in our current resource books is quite helpful, in this particular area I see the following deficiencies:

In the Merck Veterinary Manual a single sentence does address this disorder that appears at times in later gestation. In the 8th Edition it is found on P.744, the 'Pregnancy Toxemia in Ewes' section, in the paragraph called 'Diagnosis'. The single sentence reads: "Hypocalcemia, uncomplicated by pregnancy toxemia, should always be considered for recumbent late-gestation
sheep." That's it! There is no discussion of either causation or treatment to be found anywhere for this briefly referred-to hypocalcemia. I can only speculate that it is because it is not well understood by the author.

Smith and Sherman's 'Goat Medicine' book does a fine job of pointing out in the section on goats' dietary needs that a diet containing 2 parts calcium for every 1 part phosphorus is important. Unfortunately, it appears there was a lapse in transferring that information over into other areas of the book where it is needed. For example, in a discussion of 'metabolic disorders appearing in late gestation' a reference is made to hypocalcemia, which is then followed up by a vague comment about some magical but unexplained chemical imbalance within the hypocalcemic goat that makes calcium unavailable to her. The author fails to make use of this golden opportunity to explain to the reader (many of whom do not understand the nutritional needs of a pregnant/ lactating goat) the importance of providing a diet that contains 2 parts calcium for every 1 part phosphorus to free up calcium for her fetuses/milk production in order to prevent this hypocalcemia . Once again, I am left to assume that the authors are not making this connection? Oddly, there is another comment in that same section on metabolic disorders about goats needing "2 parts 'forage' to 1 part 'concentrate'", a misleading statement at best, and a recipe for disaster at
worst, since vast numbers of goat owners have only grass for forage, and grass contains very little calcium at all.

John Matthews, in his 'Diseases of the Goat', talks about 'hypocalcaemia', noting that it may appear in late pregnancy... AND in any stage of lactation (an important bit of information!). Sadly, he also misses the simple cause, a dietary imbalance that prevents the uptake of calcium from the feed, and relies on that magical but unexplained "failure in the homeostatic mechanisms to meet the increased demand for calcium". However, in his discussion of 'Hypocalcaemia' he does redeem himself admirably with the accuracy of the following statement that: "All recumbant or comatose goats should be treated as potentially hypocalcaemic and given calcium."

Disappointingly, in addition to failing to explain the actual cause of hypocalcemia (unbalanced diet), none of these popular reference books offer any suggestion that continued calcium replacement during this owner-created crisis be started as a treatment for it. In fact, all excepting John Matthews' book actually make very little of hypocalcemia, despite the fact that (while admittedly it remains unrecognized due to lack of text reference information on the subject) it shows up quite frequently in the 'down' pregnant/lactating does managed by inexperienced goat owners. As a result, its potential for use as a diagnosis is overlooked entirely by veterinarians seeking guidance from these books in their efforts to come up with a proper diagnosis and treatment for the animal. The huge down side of this is that when the hypocalcemic condition is not recognized, the veterinarian that is inexperienced in diagnosing 'down' pregnant goats will, using these books for reference, almost always opt for a diagnosis of Pregnancy Toxemia, or Pregnancy Ketosis, or any combination or variation of those words. When asked directly about the possibility of a calcium deficiency, he/she frequently responds, "This goat's problem has nothing to do with calcium." The predictable treatment regimen will then be: "Treat with propylene glycol for ketosis, and get the babies out fast (C-section or, even worse, suggestion of Lutalyse for abortion, which will not work because the uterus has no muscle tone with which to expel the fetuses when put into the labor mode) to save the life of the doe." In instituting calcium therapy in lieu of such drastic measures I have never experienced loss of either the doe or the kids, and does thus properly treated to correct the condition invariably go on to freshen normally. Were it my goat down with this problem I would most surely engage the vet as a partner in instituting this treatment prior to embarking on anything so drastic as C-section or abortion!

A number of our foremost dairy goat nutritionists and veterinarians have made reference to the existence of hypocalcemia in their writings over the years, although none seem to address the actual cause of it, which is critical to its treatment. As actual livestock management is not their field, perhaps they assume that all dairy goat people instinctively understand how to correctly feed their pregnant stock? They apparently are unaware that it is the mistakes in the feeding programs made by those of us who do not understand this essential 2:1 nutritional need that cause this hypocalcemic (too little calcium) condition.

Here are a couple of contributions made by respected individuals that have helped us in our understanding of goats' dietary needs, and have suggested potential corrective measures to take when the needs are not met:

Dr M.E. Ensminger, a renowned livestock nutritionist from whose work a vast body of our experts draw today in order to determine the content of livestock feeds and make nutrition recommendations, says in his 'bible' of livestock nutrition called Feeds & Nutrition - Complete, published in 1978, that Alfalfa (lucerne), a legume, "is high in calcium, protein, and carotene, and in many other minerals and vitamins". He notes that "legumes are excellent calcium sources, while grasses and silages tend to be substantially lower in calcium content". He points out clearly that both bone growth and lactation (and muscle tone as well, BTW) require substantial quantities of these minerals. He says, "If there is a severe imbalance of them during pregnancy and early lactation, 'milk fever' <smile> may occur." And he continues, "Therefore, in order to prevent these problems, the calcium:phosphorus ratio should be at least 2:1." (2 parts calcium: 1 part phosphorus.) (FYI: He also states: "In males an imbalance of calcium to phosphorus often leads to the development of urinary calculi.")... Finally, as an addendum to those among us who rely on grass hay to feed our goats, Dr Ensminger suggests that where additional calcium is needed, ground limestone is generally the mineral of choice, but if the animals are in need of both calcium and phosphorus the best choices for provision of these 2 essential minerals are di-calcium phosphate or steamed bone meal.

Another knowledgeable person, a man with whom I had the good fortune to come into contact when I was living in So. California where I first began to raise dairy goats, was a veterinarian named Dr Robert A. Jackson. He was what you could call a goat vet's goat vet, and he and a dairy goat breeder/judge named Alice Gaye Hall frequently co-wrote articles on dairy goat management. In one such article, printed in the July '82 Dairy Goat Guide and entitled 'What to Know about Medications', the readers were advised that calcium is an important substance for goat owners to keep in their cupboards because goats often come down with 'eclampsia, which is much like milk fever...'. As do others, they called it milk fever when it is actually just one of the elements one finds in that disease, and while they don't address its dynamics, they do make the observation that a calcium deficiency (hypocalcemia) sometimes exists in the pregnant/lactating goat, and that the owner should be prepared to treat it when it shows up.

Sue Reith
Carmelita Toggs
Bainbridge Island WA
suereith@msn.com

Sheep! Magazine: Article on Kind Horn Farm

Tue, 15 Apr 2025 19:21:08 GMT

“Whole Sheep, Whole Farm”

(Wholesome Demand)

by Tim King & Nathan Griffith
©2011 by sheep! www.sheepmagazine.com
(Used by Permission)

Kathy Taft Boyden of Kind Horn Farm (near South Duxbury, Vermont) doesn’t believe in wasting anything. That is why she sells the whole sheep from the chops to the horns.

Kathy, and her husband Doug Boyden, raise certified organic and registered Icelandic sheep in the mountains of Vermont. They focus on selling wool, lamb, and breeding stock but they also sell pelts, hand woven rugs, horns, and are even making plans to make buttons from the horns. The idea that nothing should be wasted is a fusion of both the economic and philosophical beliefs of the couple.

Kind Horn Icelandic sheep convert rough grazing on cutover woodlands into premium value organic wool and meat.

“For me, all of the things that we do are intertwined,” Kathy said. “We are trying to be as sustainable as possible in our farming operation here. The Icelandic sheep certainly have their role in our whole sustainability goal. They are the key to bringing back the pastures. They are happy to eat most anything, including brambles, burdock, saplings, and all kinds of weeds.”

The “waste not” ethic may also rise from the rather unforgiving land on which they raise their sheep.

“We bought 265 acres from one of the logging companies after they logged it,” Kathy said. “The Icelandics can utilize lower quality pasture. They would likely enjoy high quality pasture but what came back here after the logging was brambles, saplings, nut sedges, and stuff like that.”

With substantial help from the sheep, Kathy and Doug are slowly improving the old woodland pastures. But the limited (and somewhat low quality) forage has been negatively affecting the number of sheep the land will carry.

“We keep about 50 sheep in the summer and overwinter around 20 to 25,” Kathy said. “As the pastures continue to improve and can support more animals, we will increase our flock numbers.”

Kind Horn’s forage-based feeding plan is based on the farm’s still-developing pastures. “We feed pasture until it runs out,” Kathy confides. And then the sheep get plain dry hay. “Silage, they don’t seem to care for and we aren’t really set up to feed large round bales. So, we use small square bales.”

The pastures’ former covering of trees derived nutrition from tap roots that could absorb and convert mineral-laden water from deep in the ground into leaves, bark and wood. Building up fertility and organic matter in the topsoil so high-yield forage species can thrive takes time. “We don’t have enough pasture where we are now,” Kathy says, “so we have to buy hay for the winter."

The hay fed to the sheep adds organic matter and nutrients after it passes through the sheep’s guts. Building up soil using purchased hay takes years. To date, it hasn’t made visible improvements in Kind Horn’s grass growth.

“I haven’t been able to see a difference this way,” says Kathy. “We do soil testing and the results have remained pretty much the same.”

High-yield forage species have certain absolute requirements. “The pH of the soil is very bad for getting pasture seed to grow,” says Kathy. “Clover wants sweeter soil, too. Much of what filled in after the land was cleared was poor forage—native grass that grows very slowly and goes to seed quickly."

“There are still a lot of brambles and saplings that sprout up. The sheep eat this just fine, but we need more real pasture grasses and legumes."

“We are investing in three tons of lime to the acre this fall. We will do more overseeding next spring and should see great improvement in the pasture. So they say!”

Well-Grown, Well-Marketed, Well Demanded

At present the demand for Kindhorn Farm’s top-quality Icelandic lamb is outstripping the supply. Last year Kathy ran out of lamb even though the certified organic meat sells for $10 a pound based on the carcass hanging weight. Kindhorn Farm also sells individual cuts. Loin chops, for example, sell for $19.95 a pound. Like everything else on the farm, the organic certification has philosophical roots that bring fortunate economic results.

“I believe organic practices are good for the land and the animals,” Kathy said. “It’s harder to raise them organically, especially with the depleted land we have here, but I got certified organic because I wanted my customers to feel certain that they were getting the best when they were paying premium prices.”

The farm’s meats are sold mostly in frozen form and none are processed on-farm at this time.

Kathy explains, “We use a certified organic, federally inspected facility. Sometimes I pick up the meat from the butcher just refrigerated. It depends on when they get it ready and how soon I can get there. Once in a while I’m able to go to the farmers market with fresh, not frozen, cuts.”

Organic production and the breed’s reputation can be very powerful selling points—so powerful that verbal and print descriptions alone have been enough to get consumers to make that all-important first trial purchase of Kindhorn Farm lamb. Kathy has discovered certain phrases that help encourage strong buyer confidence. She discloses a simple but unequivocal profit wording: “It seems to sell well based on the descriptions “Gourmet Icelandic Lamb” and “Mild, tender, and sweet.”

What cuts of meat sell best this way?

“Oh, people like shanks, ground, stew. Really all cuts,” says Kathy. “Leg of lamb is quite popular too; chops, rack, shoulder roasts—even neck slices sell.”

Dealing In Wool

Kind Horn Farm also receives premium prices for roving and yarn. A four-ounce skein of moorit (honey brown) colored two-ply yarn sells for $24.00. A blended roving made of 60 percent Icelandic wool combined with 40 percent llama fiber sells for $4.25 an ounce. And a one pound, five ounce certified organic lamb’s fleece sold for $38.00.

“We send most of our wool to Still River Mill in Connecticut,” Kathy says. “We use their services because—although they are not certified organic—they adhere to all the certified organic practices. That way, when I send my wool out to customers, I can say it’s the certified organic wool and it’s been processed using organic processes."

“I also use Morning Star Mill in Ohio. The operators keep Icelandic sheep and process a lot of Icelandic wool. They do an excellent job. I send them my non-organic fiber. My entire initial breeding stock was non-organic because organic breeding stock wasn’t available at the time. I still have some non-organic fiber.”

Kindhorn’s select grade Icelandic wool sells well on its own merits. In order to get the fiber sold, the farm doesn’t have to sponsor special classes or teach people unique crafts and skills that require or involve their products.

Roving made from the farm’s Icelandic lamb’s wool finds excellent demand, as do blends of Icelandic wool and llama fiber. Both typically sell out well before the next harvest.

One uniquely valuable item with very special craft demand is Lopi style yarn.

Lopi yarn is essentially an Icelandic breed signature product, arising from the fact that the breed’s fleece consists of two kinds of fiber. One kind is composed of stout, tougher strands that grow without much curl or wave and form a water-repellent outer layer to the fleece. This fiber is called tog. The other type of Icelandic fiber is called thel or pel and forms the fleece’s inner coat of soft, fine wool that is highly insulative.

Both fiber types are blended to make Lopi yarn, which makes the finished product feel very light in relation to its bulk. It’s not as dense most knitting wool, the very name “Lopi” originally meaning not spun at all.

Lopi yarn is a unique product, invented about 100 years ago, by textile crafts workers who discovered that unspun Icelandic wool made unique sweaters and other knit goods. Today it is only lightly spun and retains its luxurious warmth and light weight.

“People are generally very excited about our Lopi style yarn,” boasts Kathy. “We often get comments on how much softer and nicer our Lopi is than the conventional, imported Lopi sold in yarn shops."

Other Products & Practices

Breeding stock is another component of the “whole farm, whole sheep” approach at Kind Horn. The organic certification of the breeding stock gives them the opportunity to stand out. Kindhorn Farm is one of the very few certified organic flocks in the northeast. But Kathy and Doug haven’t stopped there in their effort to create a high value specialty product.

“We have registered Icelandics and we import semen from Iceland,” Kathy said. “They raise the sheep in Iceland primarily for meat so with the semen from Iceland you see a huge improvement in muscling. They also breed for wool and conformation. In Iceland they select the best of the best rams. It costs quite a bit to import the semen and that is reflected in the cost of our breeding stock. We are doing our own artificial insemination here.”

In addition to lamb, wool in various forms and breeding stock, Kindhorn Farm sells pelts, hand woven rugs, llama fleeces and handspun llama yarn, batts for felting and of course the horns.

“We have all horned Icelandics so ewes and rams have horns,” Kathy said. “They are very distinctive—they don’t look like your typical sheep. My father is a dairy farmer (cows) and when he first saw them he thought they were goats.”

It is that need for—and interest in—education about Icelandics that takes Kathy to the Montpelier, Vermont farmer’s market during the winter.

Selling at the farmers’ market is just one part of the farm’s commercial distribution efforts. Kathy and Doug sell their products to families nearby and on their farm. Kathy says she enjoys knowing that meat from their farm is nourishing local families. They also sell some of their products via the World Wide Web. But Kathy says the farmers’ market is important to her.

“I enjoy the farmers’ market because we can talk to people about what we are doing and get lots of feedback,” Kathy says. “It’s fun to tell people about Icelandics. I reserve a certain amount of the lamb to sell at the farmers’ market. Going to the farmers’ market also helps me sell the roving, yarn, horn, pelts, rugs, and other products. If I didn’t go to the farmers’ market I’d only have my on-line sales.”

For Kathy the farmers’ market is part of the “whole sheep, whole farm” approach. She finds customers for her more unusual products, builds a customer base for the farm’s expanding flock, and in the process has fun talking to people about the sheep she loves.

For more information about Kindhorn Farm, visit their website at www.kindhornfarm.com.

Grazing, Management of Sheep and Grass!

Tue, 15 Apr 2025 19:12:21 GMT

Grazing

Grazing is the use of grasses and other plants to feed herbivores, such as sheep and goats. Most sheep and goats graze at least a portion of the year. On this page, grazing links are arranged by subject category: controlled grazing , extending the grazing season , grazing behavior , grazing management , grazing systems , management-intensive grazing , multispecies grazing , prescribed grazing , riparian grazing , rotational grazing , silvopasture , and stocking rates .

KIND HORN FARM RECOMMENDS

For optimal parasite management, we recommend that you keep your Icelandics in the same paddock for no more than 5 days at a time, with 1-3 days being optimal for the forage. Rest the pasture for 90 days ideally before bringing the sheep back for another grazing.

Try your best to work within these guidelines!

[PDF] Grazing Alfalfa - University of Kentucky

Controlled Grazing

Controlled Grazing of Virginia's Pastures

Creep Grazing

Extending the Grazing Season

[PDF] Extending grazing and reducing stored feed needs - MW Forage

[PDF] Grazing corn: an option for extending... - University of Kentucky

[PDF] Supplemental pastures for sheep - University of Nebraska

Grazing Behavior

[PDF] Diet selection and grazing behavior - University of Maine

Grazing Management

Grazing Systems

Grazing systems - McGill University

Management-Intensive Grazing (MIG)

Multispecies Grazing

Prescribed Grazing

Riparian Grazing

Rotational Grazing

Silvopasture

Stocking Rates

The Maryland Small Ruminant Page [sheepandgoat.com] was created in 1998 as an information portal for sheep and goat producers and anyone else interested in small ruminant production. The web site includes original documents and images as well as a comprehensive list of links pertaining to small ruminants and related topics. The web site was developed and is maintained by Susan Schoenian, Extension Sheep & Goat Specialist at the University of Maryland's Western Maryland Research & Education Center. Susan has been with University of Maryland Extension since 1988. She holds B.S. and M.S. degrees in Animal Science from Virginia Tech and Montana State University, respectively, and also attended The Ohio State University. Susan conducts the Western Maryland Pasture-Based Meat Goat Performance Test at her research facility in Keedysville. She raises registered and commercial Katahdin sheep on her small farm called The Baalands in Clear Spring, Maryland. Please direct all questions, comments, or suggestions to Susan at sschoen@umd.edu

Disclaimer : The information and links contained on the Maryland Small Ruminant Page [sheepandgoat.com] and other pages created by Susan Schoenian are for informational purposes only and do not constitute an endorsement of any person, organization, business, product, or web site. The author disclaims any liability in connection with the use of this information. Users of this web site and all external links are advised to apply common sense and sound judgement to all information obtained from the internet, regardless of source.

Last updated 01-Dec-2010 by Susan Schoenian.

Know Your Parasites

Tue, 15 Apr 2025 18:55:55 GMT

Internal Parasites - Sheep

Internal parasite (worm) control

In most sheep production areas, internal or gastro-intestinal parasites (i.e. worms) are usually the primary disease affecting sheep and lambs. Sheep are more susceptible to internal parasites than most other types of farm livestock for several reasons. Their small fecal pellets disintegrate very easily thus releasing the worm larvae onto pastures.

They graze close to the soil surface and to their feces. They are slow to acquire immunity. It takes 10 to 12 months for most lambs to develop immunity to parasites. Sheep also suffer a loss of immunity at the time of lambing, which does not restore itself until approximately four weeks after lambing.

Heavy stocking rates and insufficient pasture rest periods further contribute to the incidence of parasitic disease in sheep and lambs. Internal parasites tend to be much less of a problem under range-type conditions where sheep do not graze the same pasture twice in the same grazing season. They are also less of a problem in arid regions, because parasites require moisture for their development.

In the past, sheep producers relied heavily on anti-parasitic drugs, called "anthelmintics" to control internal parasites in their flocks. But the long-time use and in some cases misuse of these drugs has resulted in parasites that have become increasingly resistant to anthelmintics. Drug resistance has been documented in all three drug families and is most commonly reported with ivermectin and the benzimidazoles.

In the U.S., few anthelmintics are FDA-approved for use in sheep and lambs, and no new drugs are likely to be developed. As a result, producers must develop more integrated programs for controlling parasites, which do not rely exclusively on drug therapy.

The Parasites

Gastro-Intestinal Worms (roundworms, nematodes, stomach worms)
In warm, moist climates, the parasite that causes the most problems to sheep and lambs is usually Haemonchus Contortus, better known as the "barber pole" or wire worm. The barber pole worm is a blood-sucking parasite that pierces the lining of the abomasum (the sheep's fourth or "true" stomach), causing blood plasma and protein loss to the sheep.

Females are identified as barber pole worms because their white ovaries are wound around their red blood-filled intestine. Male worms are red. The barber pole worm is the largest and most deadly stomach worm.

The symptom most commonly associated with barber pole worm infection is anemia, characterized by pale mucous membranes, especially in the lower eye lid; and "bottle jaw," an accumulation (or swelling) of fluid under the jaw. Infections with barber pole worm rarely result in diarrhea (scours). The other worm species are more likely to cause diarrhea. The barber pole worm is difficult to control because it has a short, direct life cycle and is a prolific egg producer.

A female barber pole worm can produce 5,000 to 10,000 eggs per day. The barber pole worm is also capable of going into a "hypobiotic" or arrested state when environmental conditions are not conducive to its development and resuming its life cycle once environmental conditions improve. Some worm larvae are able to survive on pastures over the winter.

The stomach worms usually of secondary importance are Trichostrongylus spp. and Ostertagia spp. Their importance is usually as an additive effect in mixed infections with haemonchus. However, in warmer sub-tropical areas, Trichostrongylus spp. are important pathogens in grazing ruminants. Ostertagia appears to be much less important in the United States than in cooler parts of the world such as Northern Europe and the British Isles.

In the southern United States, Ostertagia circumcincta is of no real significance in small ruminants because the hot and often dry summers are hostile to the survival of its pre-parasitic stages In the western U.S. particularly the cooler, wetter, coastal areas of Washington, Oregon and Northern California, Ostertagia circumcincta is the dominant nematode of sheep (and goats).

Nematodirus is not usually a primary pathogen in ruminants in North America. However, Nematodirus battus does cause significant disease in lambs in Britain because of its unusual hatching requirements. Cooperia infections are usually secondary contributors to parasitic disease.

Tapeworms (Moniezia spp.)
Because tapeworm segments can be seen in sheep feces, they often cause alarm to producers. Experts disagree about the importance of effects of the parasite. Although dramatically large numbers of tapeworms may occupy the small intestine, damage to sheep is generally much less than that done by the gastrointestinal nematodes such as Haemonchus and Ostertagia.

In extreme cases, tapeworms may cause intestinal blockages. There is some evidence that lamb growth rates may be affected when large numbers of tapeworms are present. Tapeworms have an indirect life cycle. They require pasture mites to complete their life cycle. Only certain anthelmintics (benzimidazoles) are effective against tapeworms.

Lungworms (Dictyocaulus filaria, Muellerius capillaris)
Wet, low-lying pastures and cool, damp weather favor the development of lungworm disease in sheep. Lungworm eggs are passed in the feces. After the eggs hatch and are ingested by the sheep, they travel through the sheep's tissues to the lungs (trachea and bronchi). Only in severe infestations do lungworms produce clinical disease, causing fever, coughing, nasal discharge, rapid breathing, and poor performance. Secondary infection by bacteria may cause death.

Liver Flukes (Fasciola hepatica)
Liver flukes can cause death in sheep and lambs or liver damage in sub-acute cases. In the U.S., they are primarily a concern in California, the Gulf States and Pacific Northwest. Liver flukes require snails as an intermediate host. Two drugs are available in the United States for the treatment of liver flukes: Clorsulon and Albendazole.

Meningeal Worm (Paralaphostrongylus tenius)
The meningeal (deer or brain) worm is an internal parasite of white tailed deer. The life cycle of the meningeal worm requires terrestrial snails or slugs as intermediate hosts. Sheep are unnatural, dead-end hosts for the parasite. When sheep ingest snails containing infective larvae, the parasite moves into the brain and/or spinal cord causing often fatal neurological disease.

The neurological signs observed in infected sheep depend upon the number of larvae present in the nervous tissue and the portion of the rain or spinal cord that has been affected. A mild infection may produce a slight limp or weakness in one or more legs, while a more severe infection may cause an animal to be partially or completely paralyzed.

Meningeal worm infection cannot be diagnosed in the live animal. Treatment usually involves high, repetitive doses of anthelmintics, along with steroids and other supportive therapies. Preventative measures include fencing off areas which receive high deer utilization and removing sheep from pastures before weather turns cool and wet.

Fencing sheep away from likely snail and slug habitats (e.g. ponds, swamps, wetlands, low lying and poorly drained fields, and woodlands) may also help to prevent the problem. In high risk areas, monthly deworming has been advocated.

Coccidia (Eimeria spp.)
Coccidia are single-cell protozoa that damage the lining of the small intestine. They are host-specific, meaning the species that affects cattle, swine, and poultry does not affect sheep and vice versa. Coccidiosis is very common in sheep, especially young, growing lambs. Older sheep serves as sources of infection for young sheep.

Lambs in lambing pens, intensive grazing areas, and feedlots are at greatest risk. Transmission of coccidiosis to lambs favors warm, wet environmental conditions. Stress often induces outbreaks of coccidiosis. Coccidiosis often follows weaning or shipping stresses.

Clinical signs include diarrhea (sometimes containing blood or mucous), dehydration, fever, weight loss, loss of appetite, anemia, and death. The coccidia organism does not respond to the standard deworming products. Medications used to treat clinical coccidiosis differ from medications use to prevent it.

Outbreaks of coccidiosis are usually treated with sulfa drugs and amprolium (Corid). These drugs must be prescribed by a veterinarian. Feed additives for the prevention of coccidiosis in lambs are currently in use by the sheep industry. They include two FDA-approved products, lasalocid (Bovatec®) and decoquinate (Deccox®), and one non-approved product, monensin (Rumensin®). Rumensin® is very toxic to horses. Bovatec® and Deccox® should not be fed to horses or other equines.

Monensin requires a veterinary prescription. Preventive medications such as monensin, lasalocid, and decoquinate, are collectively referred to as coccidiostats, meaning that they slow down the shedding of coccidia into the environment. They are only effective in preventing disease if they are added to the feed before lambs become exposed. On the other hand, treatment medications such as sulfa compounds and amprolium are coccidiacidal, meaning that they actually kill the coccidia organisms in the intestine of the treated animal.

Integrated Parasite Management (IPM)

Good Management
Internal parasite control starts with good management and common sense. Sheep should not be fed on the ground. Feeders which cannot easily be contaminated with feces should be utilized for grain, hay, and minerals. Water should be clean and free from fecal matter. Pastures and pens should not be overstocked. When new sheep are acquired they should be isolated from the rest of the flock for 30 days and aggressively dewormed to prevent the introduction of drug-resistant worms.

Use of Clean or Safe Pastures
Clean or safe pastures are pastures which are not contaminated with the worm larvae that affect sheep. Examples of clean pastures include pastures that have not been grazed by sheep or goats for the past 6 to 12 months; pastures which have been grazed by horses or cattle; pasture fields in which a hay or silage crop has been removed; pasture fields which have been rotated with field crops; and pastures than have been recently established or renovated by tillage. While burning a pasture will remove worm larvae, there are no pasture treatments that will effectively eliminate or reduce worm larvae.

Pasture Rest and Rotation
It is a common misconception that rotational grazing helps to control internal parasites in sheep. Intensive rotational grazing may actually contribute to parasitic problems. This is because rotating large groups of ewes and lambs through small paddocks concentrates livestock and infective parasite larvae onto the same small area.

Researchers in the Netherlands found that it takes three months of rest for an infected pasture to return to a low level of infectivity. Researchers at Langston University (Oklahoma) determined that a 65-day rest period was sufficient (for goats). Rotational grazing is an effective management tool for managing parasites, but only if pasture rest periods are long enough (i.e. 60 days or more). On the other hand, better nutrition provided by rotational grazing may offset the effects of higher parasite loads on the pasture.

Grazing Strategies
Approximately 80 percent of the worm larvae can be found in the first two inches of grass. Therefore, sheep grazing taller forages will have fewer parasite problems. Sheep should not be allowed to graze forages shorter than 2 inches in height. Sheep that browse also have fewer parasite problems. Another grazing strategy is to wait until the dew has lifted from the grass or grass has dried after a rain. Dry conditions force parasites to stay at the base of the plants where they are less likely to be consumed by the livestock.

Multi-species Grazing
Sheep (and goats) are generally not affected by the same internal parasites as cattle and horses. Consequently, pastures grazed by cattle and horses are safe(r) for sheep (and goats) and conversely. Sheep can be co-grazed with cattle and/or horses. A leader-follower system can be utilized or pastures can be alternated between sheep and cattle and/or horses.

There are numerous other benefits to multi-species grazing. Each species has different grazing behavior that complements one another. For example, sheep prefer to eat weeds and short, tender grasses and clover, while cattle prefer to eat taller grasses. Cattle may offer some protection from predators.

Alternative Forages
Some pasture plants have anthelmintic properties, such as those containing condensed tannins. Research has shown that sheep grazing tannin-rich forages have lower fecal egg counts than animals grazing traditional grass pastures. The tannins may also decrease the hatch rate of worm eggs and larval development in feces.

Forage species which contain high levels of condensed tannins include sericea lespedeza, birdsfoot trefoil, and chicory. Sericea lespedeza is a warm, season legume. Birdsfoot trefoil is a long-lived perennial legume. Chicory is a low-growing, leafy perennial. Generally speaking, trees and shrubs contain higher levels of tannins than pasture grasses, and tropical legumes contain more condensed tannins than temperate legumes.

Healthy Soil
Earthworms have been shown to ingest worm eggs and larvae, either killing them or carrying them below the soil surface. Certain types of fungi will trap and kill parasitic larvae. Dung beetles ingest and disperse manure, thus keeping eggs and larvae from developing. Anything that is done to maintain soil health and promote these types of organisms will aid in parasite control. Scientists are examining the possibility of feeding nematophagous fungi to livestock to kill larvae in manure piles.

Nutritional Management
Supplemental feeding should not be overlooked as a means to control parasites. Sheep and lambs on a higher plane of nutrition mount a better immune response to internal parasites than animals whose nutritional status is compromised. Animals on low protein diets are more susceptible to infection because they produce less IgA (immunoglobulin). Higher levels of protein have been shown to improve the pregnant ewe's immune response to parasites after lambing. Lambs receiving protein supplementation have reduced fecal egg counts.

Zero Grazing
Keeping sheep and/or lambs in confinement (i.e. "zero grazing") is a means of reducing parasitism and preventing reinfection. Under a zero grazing situation, sheep and/or lambs do not have access to any vegetation for grazing. They are housed in a bedded barn, dirt lot, or facility with slotted floors. Feed should be fed off the ground in feeders. Watering containers should be kept free from fecal matter. Slotted floors offer the best protection against internal parasites because sheep generally do not come into contact with their feces.

Genetics
Genetics is probably the best long term weapon against internal parasites in sheep. Some sheep breeds are more resistant and resilient to internal parasites. They include the Florida (or Gulf Coast) Native and the hair sheep breeds: St. Croix, Barbados Blackbelly (and its derivatives), and Katahdin. Grazing resistant breeds of sheep with susceptible breeds, may act to “sweep” pastures and reduce contamination to susceptible animals.

Regardless of the breed raised, producers can also breed sheep which are less resistant to parasites by culling ewes that are persistently affected by parasites and favoring parasite resistant ewes and rams in their selection programs. Both fecal egg counts and FAMACHA© scores can be used to identify sheep with resistant and susceptible genetics.

In New Zealand, it is possible to select rams that shed 60 to 70 percent fewer parasite eggs than historical averages. Scientists are currently looking for genetic markers for worm resistance so that a DNA test could be used to show producers which of their animals are resistant to internal parasites.

Proper Anthelmintic Use

Anthelmintics are still an important part of parasite control. However, they must be used properly to ensure effectiveness of treatment and slow down the rate by which worms develop drug resistance. To start with, the weights of sheep and lambs must be known or approximated accurately in order to calculate the proper dosage of medicine. Underdosing results in the survival of worms which are resistant to the anthelmintic used.

Flocks should be divided into groups for deworming or drenching equipment should be calibrated for the heaviest animals in the group. Oral drenching is the recommended method of treatment for sheep. Oral medications should be delivered over the tongue. If the medicine is deposited into the mouth to stimulate the closure of the esophageal groove and bypass the rumen.

If an anthelmintic is more slowly absorbed in the gut, drug levels are prolonged and the treatment may be more effective. Thus, fasting sheep for up to 24 hours may improve efficacy of dewormers, especially when using benzimidazoles and ivermectin. However, water should not be restricted.

Using the same anthelmintic or drugs from the same chemical family will increase the rate at which worms become resistant to the drugs. To lessen the effect, anthelmintics (or drug groups) should be rotated on an annual basis. On the other hand, anthelmintics should not be rotated after each use; otherwise, worms will develop resistance to each drug simultaneously.

If you do not deworm your animals much (e.g. < 3 times per year), you might not have much of a drug resistant problem. But if you introduce new animals to your flock, you could introduce drug-resistant worms. This is especially true if you purchase animals from a farm that deworms frequently.

To prevent the introduction of drug-resistant worms, you should deworm newly purchased animals with drugs from at least two of the three anthelmintic families. Moxidectin should be favored over ivermectin due to its superior potency. Levamisole should probably be the other choice, since widespread resistance is believed to exist in the benzimidazole group of dewormers. After deworming, the animal(s) should be released onto a wormy pasture to help dilute any "super-resistant" worms that may remain in his system.

Anthelmintics (dewormers) available in the U.S.

Only Valbazen® drench, Ivomec® drench, Levamisol® drench and oblets, and Cydectin® drench are FDA-approved for use in sheep in the United States. Levamisol is currently off the market.

Alternative Dewormers

Currently, there is a lot of interest in using "natural" products as an alternative to chemical control of parasites. Such products include herbal dewormers and diatomaceous earth. Unfortunately, there is no research to indicate that any of these products have a substantial effect on internal parasites in sheep, only testimonials. However, this is an area of increasing research interest and hopefully recommendations will be forthcoming in the years ahead.

Copper oxide particles (administered as a bolus) have been shown to reduce barber pole worm infections in sheep. They have been used with mixed results in goats. Copper oxide is available for cattle as a supplement to alleviate copper deficiency and has been used in sheep for the same purpose. Scientists are currently evaluating different dosage rates to avoid copper toxicity in sheep.

Refugia

Worms in "refugia" are those which have not been exposed to drug treatment. They include free-living stages on pasture and worms in untreated animals. Refugia are being viewed as an important tool to slow down anthelmintic resistance. To increase refugia, it is suggested that a portion of the flock not be dewormed.

Fecal egg counts and FAMACHA© scores can be used to identify which animals do not require deworming. Another strategy for increasing refugia is to return treated animals to a wormy pasture. The reason for this recommendation is because if treated animals are moved to a "clean" pasture, the only worms that will be on that pasture will be resistant to anthelmintic treatment.

Fecal Egg Analysis

Fecal egg analysis is an important part of a internal parasite control program. Primarily, a fecal analysis tells you how contaminated your pastures are. Fecal analysis can also be used to make selection and culling decisions by identifying animals with both high and low egg counts. Probably the most valuable use of fecal analysis is determining drug resistance.

The test to determine drug resistance is called the fecal egg count reduction test (FECRT). To conduct a FECRT, animal are weighed and dewormed with the anthelmintic you wish to test. Fecal samples are collected twice: first at the time of deworming and second, 7 to 10 days later. Six or more (ideally 10 ) animals should be tested for each anthelmintic. Fecal samples should also be collected and analyzed for a similar group of untreated animals.

For an anthelmintic to be considered effective it should reduce fecal egg counts by 90 percent (ideally 95%). There is severe drug resistance if treatment fails to reduce egg counts by more than 60 percent.

To do your own fecal analysis, you need a microscope, flotation solution, mixing vials, strainer, stirring rod, slides, and cover slips. You do not need an elaborate microscope. 100X power is sufficient. You can purchase flotation solution from veterinary supply companies or make your own by mixing a saturated salt or sugar solution. Your mixing vials can be jars, pill bottles, film canisters, test tubes, or something similar. You can use a tea strainer or cheese cloth to strain the feces. The stirring rod can be a pencil or popsicle stick.

If you want to count eggs, you want to get a McMaster Egg Counting slide available HERE. The McMaster slide has chambers that making egg counting easier. The Paracount-EPG™ Fecal Analysis Kit with McMaster-Type Counting Slides is available for $40 from the Chalex Corperation.

Identifying Worm Eggs. "Strongyle-type" eggs (Haemonchus, Ostertagia and Trichostrongylus) are elliptical or oval, with smooth, thin shells. Nematodirus eggs are the largest strongyle-type eggs, but eggs of the species in the group cannot usually be identified precisely. Worming recommendations can be based on the quantity of strongyle eggs.

Since fecal counts only estimate the parasite load, there is no clear cut level at which worming is indicated. As a general guide, a level of about 500 eggs per gram of feces would indicate that worming is needed for sheep. A more effective way of deciding when to treat would be to monitor fecals every 4-8 weeks and deworm when there is a dramatic rise in egg counts.

Tapeworm eggs are square or triangular. Tapeworm (Moniezia sp.) eggs may be seen in fecal examination but they are in no way indicative of the level of infection. Since lungworm eggs hatch before being passed in the feces the eggs generally are not seen by the flotation method. Nematode larvae, when present in the feces, are indicative of lungworm. F

luke eggs are oval and have a smooth shell with a cap or operculum at one end. Liver flukes are prolific egg producers, but egg counts are not necessarily a good indication of infection levels. Coccidia eggs are very small, about a tenth the size of a Strongyle egg. Coccidia oocysts are passed in the feces of most livestock. Oocysts are only a moderate indicator of level of infection.

FAMACHA©

The FAMACHA© system was developed in South Africa due to the emergence of drug-resistant worms. The system utilizes an eye anemia guide to evaluate the eyelid color of a sheep (or goat) to determine the severity of parasite infection (as evidenced by anemia) and the need for deworming.

A bright red color indicates that the animal has few or no worms or that the sheep has the capacity to tolerate its worms. An almost white eyelid color a warning sign of very bad anemia; the worms present in the sheep's gut are in such numbers they are draining the animal of blood. If left untreated, such an animal will soon die.

The FAMACHA© chart contains five eye scores (1-5), which have been correlated with packed cell volumes (percentage of blood made up of red blood cells, also called haematocrit). Animals in categories 1 or 2 (red or red-pink) do not require treatment whereas animals in categories 4 and 5 (pink-white and white) do. Animals in category 3 may or may not require treatment depending upon other factors.

FAMACHA© System

Mature sheep in category 3 (pink color) probably do not requiring treament, whereas lambs or other susceptible animals should be treated if they are in category 3. The frequency of examination depends upon the season and weather pattern, with more frequent examination usually necessary in July, August, and September, the peak worm season.

The FAMACHA© system results in fewer animals being treated, which slows down drug resistance. It identifies wormy animals that require treatment. Persistently wormy animals should be marked for culling. The process of inspecting the eyes is quick and can be incorporated with other management practices.

The FAMACHA© system is only effective for the barber pole worm. It should not be used in isolation. It should be incorporated into an integrated worm control program that includes other management practices, such as pasture rest, good nutrition, multi-species grazing, alternative forages, zero grazing, and strategic deworming. FAMACHA© should only be used by properly trained individuals. To get a FAMACHA© card, producers must take an approved training.

Five Point Check©

The same South African researchers who developed the FAMACHA© system have developed the Five Point Check© for targeted selective treatment of internal parasites in small ruminants. The Five Point Check© expands the utility of the FAMACHA© system by incorporating other checks to encompass the symptoms and deworming need for other internal parasites of economic significance.

Internal parasite (worm) control <= SHEEP 201 INDEX

Late updated 17-Dec-2010 by Susan Schoenian.
Copyright© 2010. Sheep 101 and 201.

What does AI mean and why is it important?

Tue, 15 Apr 2025 18:31:42 GMT

ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION.

Why AI, you might ask?

Simply put, AI give us access to the best sheep genetics in Iceland. The folks in Iceland have been using AI in their breeding programs since the 1940's. Each year, only the best rams are chosen for the AI breeding program from Iceland's 500,000+ sheep. Now, we are able to use the best of this genetic pool in our own breeding programs.

Icelandic Breeders in North America are getting semen from Southram Station in the Southern part of Iceland. The stations in Iceland have precise methods in place for evaluating the AI rams and the lambs they will produce. When visiting the Southram website, you will see two terms frequently used: BLUP and Daughter Prolificacy Rate. BLUP shows us how the AI ram genetics should translate to traits in the offspring. The Daughter Prolificacy Rate gives an indication of the fertility rates of the ram's daughters.

But what does this really mean to the flock? Significant and rapid improvements in the flock. AI breeding, along with dedicated culling, is the fastest way to gain improvements in conformation, fleece and muscling of your sheep. Basically, AI provides us with a means to superior genetics that would not otherwise be available to us with only farm breeding. Take a look at the carcass grading chart below. It was sent to me by the folks at the AI station in Iceland. The AI sires will all fall into the E or U categories for muscling.

Sheep! Magazine Article on Kind Horn Farm AI Program

Tue, 15 Apr 2025 18:29:04 GMT

This article first appeared in Sheep! Magazine. www.sheepmagazine.com

Improving Flocks Through Artificial Insemination

By Rosie Wolf Williams

When Kathy Taft Boyden of Kind Horn Farm became interested in Icelandic sheep and decided to invest in a starter flock, she researched the idea of artificial insemination. AI programs are less common among small-scale sheep ranchers; it is practically impossible to insert a pipette into the uterus, and the resulting stress on the ewe affects suc- cess rates. Surgical insemination by a veterinarian is expensive and not within the budgetary means of all small sheep farms. But she was dedicated to starting her South Duxbury, Vermont flock with quality stock, and she saw admirable AI-produced sheep during her search.

“I started looking around at different farms and the breed- ing stock that they had to offer. It became clear to me that the farms that were using the AI really did have improved breeding stock. Their animals just looked different. When I started my flock, I did buy from farms that had been using AI—and I felt I started with a very good flock of Icelandics. But I did also want to continue doing the AI breeding. Nobody is producing semen here in the U.S. So the only way for us to get these diversified and improved genetics is to go to Iceland for it.”

Boyden says there was originally a very small gene pool of sheep imported from Iceland into Canada. In the late 90s, se- men was available for import into the United States, and several American breeders saw the opportunity for genetic diversity and breed improvement. Breeders in Iceland have been dedicated to the practice of AI for decades, and they have made significant strides in the quality of Icelandic sheep.

“Their sheep really do look very different,” says Boyden. “We have a catalog of sires available to us; they’re offering rams from quite a few different flocks in Iceland. We can buy semen for each ewe, based on the traits of the sires and what we would like to see improved in our own flock.”

Choosing Rams

In the catalog, sheep are scored using a BLUP Index. BLUP stands for “Best Linear Unbiased Prediction,” and attempts to provide the most accurate and real compilation of all the infor- mation with which the individual’s breeding value is computed. BLUP became available in 1991; the procedure makes use of genetic links to remove environmental and management factors, and produces a series of Estimated Breeding Values (EBV’s).

The ideal Icelandic sheep today has good conformation, excellent back, rump and gigot muscling. It is lean, generally produces twins and has good milking abilities.
The BLUP Index is complex, says Boyden.

“The rams are scored on meat qualities and the leanness of the meat; milking abilities of their daughters, the mothering abilities of their daughters, and for daughters’ fertility rates. The sires are evaluated and given points for individual body parts including (but not limited to) the head, neck and shoulders; the back, loin and legs; wool characteristics; feet; and overall harmony. They also are doing ultrasound measurements (in Iceland) for the eye muscle thickness. So they’re very scientific in how their measurements are done. Much of their economy is dependent on the sheep industry.”

Pre-Breeding Precautions

Icelandics are a grass-based breed; Boyden generally does not feed grain to her flock and her clientele come to her for her grass-fed lamb. She supplements the ewes with good second-cut hay or puts them on rich pasture a few weeks or a month before breeding season. And she will use a small amount of grain to distract the ewe during the insemina- tion process.

Often ewes are synchronized artificially, using progesterone- soaked sponges that postpone estral cycles. This allows the flockmaster to control breeding and birthing times. But at Kind Horn Farm, Boyden uses a “teaser” ram and prefers not to have a large number of ewes in heat at the same time.

It’s a time consuming process to do the artificial insemination, but she points out that she is able to do the entire process on her own.

“Our vasectomized teaser ram has a little pen down in my ewe barn. All of the ewes that I would like to breed that year are down in that ewe pen. I let the ram out a couple of times a day, usually at 10:00 in the morning and 10:00 at night. I wait to see him go to the ewes that are in heat. He’ll mount them, but won’t be able to really breed them. So if I’m looking in on the ewes at 10:00 in the morning and 10:00 at night, when we see a ewe is starting heat, I’m going to AI-breed her 20 hours after that."

“The procedure is quite precise, in terms of thawing semen for just the right amount of time at the right temperature. If you can go and look in on the ewes more than twice a day, you’re going to have the opportunity to become more precise in terms of when you breed the ewe."

“Knowing your ewe means a lot too; you begin to know their heat cycles. If you breed the ewe too early with the AI, the semen cells are going to die before the egg has dropped. And if you breed too late in the cycle for the delivery of the semen, the egg will already have been flushed out of the system. The more often you can go in and check the ewes, you’re hopefully going to have a better ‘take’ rate.”

The Operation

Potential breeding ewes are separated and eventually moved to an individual pen measuring approximately five feet square. The ewe is given a little hay to keep her calm and distracted, but is not tied; an extra fence panel is used to confine her to a smaller space within the pen.
Semen straws are kept in a nitrogen tank, and Boyden selects a labeled straw for the specific ewe and places it in a thawing thermos filled with water that has been heated to a precise temperature. Also preheated and kept warm are the stainless steel syringe (gun) and sheaths.
Semen straws are stored in the liquid nitrogen tank, which maintains temperatures of around minus 320°F.

“We have two sizes of straws that we are using now: We have a 0.5ml straw, and a .25ml straw—we have a different gun for each of those."

“We heat the larger straws to 122°F for 14 seconds."

“The smaller straws are in the 95°F water bottle for 15 seconds."

“That’s what the guys in Iceland recommend. But it may be different for different semen that’s out there. We fol- low as closely as we can, right down to the second, so that the probability of a ‘take’ is higher.”

Straws are dried when removed from the water bath to avoid contamination of semen. A specific amount of the straw tip is cut off, and the straw is loaded into the syringe. Boyden makes sure to keep all of the equipment warm inside her coat before inseminating the ewe.

“I put some grain in front of my ewe, and then I climb in and straddle the ewe. She’s facing one way and I’m facing the other. And then I just insert my gun in as far as it will go, push it slowly and deposit the semen in there, then it’s done.”

Boyden does not aim to place semen in the cervix. She deposits it in the anterior of the vagina, allowing the sperm to “swim” to the proper position.

Costs & Results

Boyden says she can expect an average 50 percent ‘take’ rate. Although Icelandics typically have a high twinning percentage, she sees more singles from the AI program. But she believes the benefits of breed improvement outweigh the possibility of fewer lambs.

Investing in artificial insemination equipment can be high—nitrogen tanks can range from approximately $250 to $600, but Boyden says a decent tank can be had for around $250. Smaller tanks mean more trips to recharge with liquid nitrogen; a cost of approximately $100.

Boyden only orders the straws she needs for the particular breeding season so she does not have extra straws to keep cool over the summer.

Syringes, or guns, run from $25 to $75. Other equipment such as plastic sheaths, tweezers, digital timer and ther- mometer, are all relatively inexpensive. After import fees and handling costs, se- men straws each cost approximately $50 apiece. But in the long run, Boyden feels it is a good investment. And the costs of vaginal AI—compared to laparoscopic
insemination—are a viable option for the small sheep rancher, and it’s less stressful to ewes.

Required AI equipment: Straw cutter (top left), thawing thermos with thermometer (top center) clear sheath (below thermos), insemination gun (center, below sheath), paper towel (bottom center) plastic and metal tweezers (right).

“We sell breeding stock and we send lambs to slaughter. We definitely charge more than the average breeder that’s out there. We’re able to offer people an improved representative of the breed.
And we still cull—you can’t stop culling just because you are using AI. Not every lamb is going to be perfect, whether it’s a farm-bred lamb or an AI-bred lamb. But we can offer what I consider a better sheep in the carcass and the muscling. In Iceland, they have been working to improve the muscling and the carcass grading, while not losing all of the other attributes of the Icelandic sheep that are really important: Wool quality and confor- mation remains of really high importance to them. Basically, everything that you’d want to keep ‘good’ in a sheep, they keep good. But they’re working constantly to put more meat on the sheep. So we see immediate changes in the muscling of the sheep, and we can see the benefits financially in selling the breeding stock. When we sell meat, whether we’re selling a freezer lamb or selling that meat at the farmer’s market, we see a greater meat-to- bone ratio.”

This year, Boyden is using a ram pro- duced from her own AI program.

“He’s a great looking little guy. Still, I think I might get to a point where I only do this every other year. With the AI, I’m out in the barn a lot—a minimum of twice a day. The time I spend inseminating the ewes is pretty much a minimum of 45 minutes after I get out there and get everything set up to go, and then 20 minutes per ewe after the first one. So yes, we do want to be using the rams that we receive from the AI breeding."

“The rams that they are producing in Iceland are really phenomenal. But to pick the ewes that you want with that farm ram, and forgetting about them for a while, would be ideal.”

Fiber is also a value-added product at Kind Horn Farm, and wool quality is not forgotten through the Icelandic grading process. Boyden focuses on producing a well-rounded Icelandic sheep, and she personally sees a stockier, meatier sheep through her AI program.

Getting The Genetics

At present, Icelandic sheep semen is imported annually through a cooperative; individual orders are combined into one large order. All semen is shipped to one cooperative member; other members pick up orders or arrange to have straws shipped. Members are located all over the United States. If the cooperative grows, it may be possible to have regional imports. At present, only one cooperative import is made per year to the United States.

The Icelandic Sheep Breeders of North America has information on semen importation at their website, www.isbona.com, and a listserv associated with the breeder organization is available in a Yahoo group format.

Potential semen buyers must be enrolled in the mandatory USDA scrapie program and have an assigned number.
The AI cooperative orders semen from Southram (southram.bssl.is), which is based in the southern part of Iceland. Cur- rent sires can be viewed at their website.

Boyden states the importance of taking a course before investing in an artificial insemination program such as hers. South- ram offers occasional U.S.-based courses on vaginal AI for breeders. Fees for the course are substantial but can make the difference between a mediocre and costly program and definite herd improvement.

More info on Kind Horn Farm’s Icelandic sheep breeding stock: Kathy Taft Boyden, Kind Horn Farm 1920 Dowsville Road
South Duxbury, VT 05660 802-244-5679

kathy@kindhornfarm.com

www.KindHornFarm.com
sheep!

Essentials for Lambing Time

Tue, 15 Apr 2025 18:11:09 GMT

THE ORGANIC SHEPHERD'S LAMBING KIT

Along with the excitement and anticipation of lambing comes a certain amount of concern about being prepared, especially for folks that are new to shepherding. Being prepared for lambing starts several months before lambing actually begins with good nutrition. Proper nutrition and mineral supplementation is essential to a successful lambing season. Ewes that are properly nourished will have fewer lambing issues and their lambs will be stronger at birth. Making sure that your ewes are well supplemented with selenium, vitamin E, and calcium is vitally important. But, even with correct nutrition, things can happen at lambing... and one wants to be prepared for those occasions when trouble arises!! New and experienced shepherds, alike, should go through the lambing section of Laura Lawson's book, Managing Your Ewe. It is a valuable resource that I revisit each year before lambing.

Many of the essentials in our lambing kit would be the same as for a conventional farm:

7 % Iodine for navels. We use Triodine-7 and I add some tea tree oil to that.
Scale and sling for weighing newborn lambs. I like the ones they sell at Premier.
A digital rectal thermometer for checking temps of newborn lambs. Essential for knowing whether or not a lamb is chilled.
Bulb syringe for cleaning out excess fluid from nostrils and throat of lambs slow to start.
Lubricant. Necessary for assisting deliveries. It is nice to have one with antiseptic qualities, like SuperLube. We use the powdered J-Lube, or SuperLube.
Tubing kit for getting milk into weak lambs. A 60 cc. catheter type syringe and lambing tube. Good to have extra tubes on hand.
Frozen colostrum. Do not thaw frozen colostrum in the microwave as it will destroy antibodies. New shepherds can collect colostrum from first ewes to lamb.
Syringes and needles for giving injections. 1/2" 20 gauge needles and 1" 18 gauge needles. 3, 6, 12, 20 cc syringes.
Milk replacer for bottle lambs.
Milk bottle and nipple for feeding bottle lambs. Many prefer the Pritchard teat nipples.
Ear tags and applicator and SuperLube for lubricating and disinfecting tagging applicator. Q flex 1.5 and tagger from Premier1.
Baling twine or lambing loops for assisting in difficult births and head snare.
We keep all of the essential vitamin injections on hand: BoSe, Vitamin C, Vitamin B Complex, and Vitamin A, D, E.
Clean rags and paper towels.
Scissors
Molasses to add to fresh ewe's water for quick energy.

Here are some of the certified organic products that we use:

Ketonic: available from Agri-Dynamics or Lancaster Ag. Used to treat ketosis, stressed ewes.
CMPK Oral (Vedco brand or Aspen brand). Used to treat milk fever, stressed ewes.
Calcium gluconate Can use this for milk fever, tetany, dystocia, stressed ewes. Also used for stressed lambs.
Udder Comfort Yellow Spray: Soothes and softens udders. Use for sub-acute mastitis cases. Can be ordered from PBS Animal Health.
Homeopathic arnica and Rescue Remedy: Given after difficult birth to reduce swelling and stress.
Banamine: Prescription pain reliever, Banamine, for use after very difficult assisted birth when a ewe may have a lot of pain.
Aloe C: Available from Dr Sarahs Essentials. A great product to keep on hand. Fine nutritional qualities and antioxidant properties, aids digestive issues, soothing for wounds.
Wild Herb Drench: Available from Lancaster Ag. Tonic tea for the lungs or any respiratory problems. Provides vitamins and antioxidants.

For those of you interested in moving toward a more "organic" operation using holistic products, please visit these websites:

Dr Sarah Essentials: https://drsarahsessentials.com
Agri-Dynamics: http://www.agri-dynamics.com
Crystal Creek: http://www.crystalcreeknatural.com

So, get your your lambing kits in order, get out your Laura Lawson books, and relax a bit before lambing time begins. I wish you all the most successful lambing season!

Let's cover the basic lambing kit and then look at what extras you could have on hand.

The items marked with **, are not for a basic kit, but you might want to add these over time.

Supplies

The following table lists supplies you should have on hand for lambing.

Books :

These are some of my favorites.

Natural Sheep Care - Pat Coleby

Storey's Guide to Raising Sheep - Paula Simmons and Carol Ekarius

Managing Your Ewe - Laura Lawson

The Sheep Book - Ron Parker

Living with Sheep - Chuck Wooster

The Complete Herbal Handbook for Farm and Stable - Juliette de Bairacli Levy

Lamb Problems - Laura Lawson

Essentials for Keeping Your Icelandic Flock

Tue, 15 Apr 2025 17:44:21 GMT

O.K. Now you have put down your deposit on on your beautiful new starter flock of Icelandic sheep. But, all of a sudden you have a million questions about what you will need to keep your new flock. I will try to summarize here what I feel are the essentials for getting started. You will certainly collect more tools and equipment, etc. along the way, but having some basics on hand will make the job easier.

My article assumes that you have you r shelter and barnyard fencing t ogether, but if not, click on the highlighted links for each. Two things I would like to note here:

1) Icelandic sheep should have access to the outdoors all of the time, so total confinement is not an option in my opinion.

2) I would strongly encourage people to do barnyard fencing with woven wire.

All right, now on to the basics.

Books: These are some of my favorites.

Storey's Guide to Raising Sheep - Paula Simmons and Carol Ekarius

Managing Your Ewe - Laura Lawson

The Sheep Book - Ron Parker

Living with Sheep - Chuck Wooster

The Complete Herbal Handbook for Farm and Stable - Juliette de Bairacli Levy

Lamb Problems - Laura Lawson

Feeding and Watering

Many options should be available at your local feed stores.

Buckets:

We have quite a few different sizes and shapes of bucket and pails on hand. My favorites are the heavy duty rubber buckets. These are the ones that we use for water all year long, summer and winter. Since we don't use heaters in the winter, we have iced up water buckets twice a day. The heavy rubber buckets are the only ones that will hold up to smashing ice out of them. They last forever. We use the flatter, handleless variety for water. We also have several of the plastic variety with handles on hand. These are useful for giving water in the jugs. They also make a loud noise when you shake grain around in them -- sometimes you need to convince these sheep to do what you want.

Pans:

Again, what I like for pans are the heavy duty rubber ones. I have several of these on hand in different sizes for feeding minerals and grain to individual sheep -- mamas who have just lambed, or possibly a sick sheep who needs some extra nourishment.

Feeders:

Hay feeders come in many different shapes and sizes. You can buy feeders or make your own. All of the sheep equipment suppliers (see links on my resources page) offer many choices of metal feeders. We make our own feeders here using wooden frames and hog panel sections cut to size. We use a modified version of a Premier feeder. You can purchase a booklet of feeder plans for $3.00 from Premier, or they will send it for free if you buy panels from them. Whatever you choose for feeders, just make sure that you have adequate feeder space for sheep during the winter. Pregnant ewes and ewe lambs a minimum of 16-18 inches each of feeder space, if all of the ewes are to eat at once. I would rather see close to 24 inches per ewe, so that the more timid ones will feel more comfortable getting a space at the feeder.

Waterers:

Again, many different types of waters are available. We don't use any type of automatic waterer. Just the good, old-fashioned system of carrying water. I would love to have a nice set up with piped water all over the fields, big water trough with float valve, etc., but what I have right now works just fine. With the big rubber buckets, we change water twice a day. I really emphasize changing the water and cleaning the bucket out twice a day in summer. Germs can really multiply quickly with the warm summer weather, so scrubbing the edges of the water bucket is a wise idea.

Mineral Feeders:

Sheep need constant (daily) free-choice access to loose minerals. We also like to offer kelp for the trace minerals, and the sheep love it. We use a Sydell mineral feeder that is covered and rotates to keep the moisture out. This is what we use during the grazing season and move it from paddock to paddock. During the winter, we use simple (and cheap) plastic wall mount mineral feeders. We have the ones with two bins, so that we can put out the kelp and mineral mix side by side. Just be sure to situate your mineral feeders so that blowing rain or snow will not ruin the minerals.

Galvanized Storage Cans:

Pick up several of these. We have a bunch of these cans lined up and labelled with mineral mix, grain, alfalfa pellets, kelp, etc. They keep contents fresh and critters out.

Equipment

A few things I would recommend to start out with.

Panels:

Having 4 -6 panels on hand to start with will serve you well. They are so helpful for squeezing sheep into a small space when you need to work with them. And 4-6 panels can make up to 3 lambing jugs if you start with a corner and stay along the wall. We have metal panels that hook together, but one could easily make wooden panels. All of the major sheep equipment suppliers have lovely metal panels that hook together nicely at the corners. I like the ones that are 5 feet long by 40 inches tall.

Sheep chair:

Not absolutely necessary to have on hand from the beginning, but if you can afford one....get it. These chairs will make the job of trimming hooves much easier.

Tool box:

A medium sized tool box comes in handy for toting around "first aid" stuff and medicines.

Pitch fork and dung fork:

You will need these. One for clean hay, the other for moving dirty bedding.

Small stuff

Hoof Trimming Shears: These come in different sizes. Female shepherds should look for smaller sized trimmers.

Drenching Gun: For administering oral liquid medicines. You can find these in any of the supply magazines, or possibly at the feed store locally.

Scale: We use two scales, one for weighing lambs and the other for weighing our skirted fleeces. I know that several of the suppliers offer a few options for hanging scales for weighing lambs. For weighing fleeces, we use a postal scale.

Sling: Only really necessary come lambing time. Use for carrying little lambs, and weighing.

First Aid Kit and Injectables

Most can be ordered online from Jeffers, PBS or other livestock supply companies.

Digital thermometer

Antiseptic scrub

Disposable latex gloves

Hoof trimmers

Flashlight with extra batteries

Frothy bloat treatment (for bloat and constipation in ruminants)

Gauze dressing pads

Hydrogen peroxide

Lubricant for the thermometer (i.e., petroleum jelly)

Oral syringe - Drenching gun (for dosing medications by mouth)

Pocket knife

Scissors (for cutting dressings)

Self-stick elastic bandage, such as Vetrap

Sterile saline solution (for rinsing wounds and removing debris from eyes)

Syringes (without the needle, for flushing wounds, etc)

Tweezers

Udder ointment (We use Udder Comfort from PBS)

Wire cutters

Wound ointment/spray (Check the label if you plan to use the product for meat and dairy animals.)

Hydrogen peroxide

Injectable vitamins: Vitamin B complex fortified, Vitamin A, D, E and Vitamin C

Syringes and needles. 18 and 20 gauge needles. 1/2, 3/4 and 1 inch lengths.

BoSe (injectable seleium and E) is a must have. Get it from your vet.

CDT vaccines

Tri-iodine, or other strong iodine.

A good Dewormer—You never want to be caught with a sheep that is suffering with a high parasite load and you have no way to treat it fast. Many dewormers are not available in the local feed store and must be ordered online. Find out which ones are effective for you (many are no longer effective due to parasite resistance) and always have it on hand.

Sel Plex Selenium yeast.

Ketonic, Sheep Nutri Drench or other similar product. (Lancaster Agriculture has many excellent products.)

Rescue Remedy spray

Portable (Temporary) Fencing:

We use a lot of portable netted fencing. It is really necessary for practicing rotational grazing. We highly encourage all of you to practice MIG -- it is highly beneficial for your Icelandic sheep and for your pastures. I would recommend four to six rolls of netted fence to start. We use the longer rolls. I prefer the 42" height. Follow the links on the Resources page for fencing suppliers.

So, this is a list of sheep stuff that will set you up pretty well for being prepared for your new flock. As you go along, you will probably find some additional things you think will we helpful in your situation.

The Control of Internal Parasites in Ruminants - Alternatives

Thu, 03 Apr 2025 20:48:50 GMT

By Jean Duval, agronomist, M.Sc.

January 1994

I would like to thank Christiane Trudeau of the McGill University Institute of Parasitology, Jean-Marie Boucher of the Centre d'Agriculture Biologique de la Pocatière and consulting agronomist Caroline Morin for their comments on the text.

THE CONTROL OF INTERNAL PARASITES IN RUMINANTS

Internal parasites in ruminants constitute a problem that returns periodically in almost all livestock herds. Recourse to synthetic dewormers is only a short-term solution. Animals that graze are always exposed to parasites and are thus constantly being reinfected; not to mention that routine deworming treatments delay the development of immunity in young animals. Moreover, certain parasites have developed a resistance to such deworming products as Benzimidazole, Levamisole and even Ivermectin because of too frequent use. Studies in New Zealand and Ireland indicate among other things that dewormers slow the decomposition of manure.

A serious pest control program in organic farming begins with a good understanding of parasites and the implementation of preventive measures. The ultimate objective is to develop an animal production system where parasites may be present in small numbers but do not affect the health or performance of herds. Deworming treatments, whether administered using natural products or not, should therefore only be employed in emergency situations or, if using weaker products, as preventive maintenance.

This document provides a description of internal parasites, methods to prevent their infestation and alternatives to conventional dewormers for ruminants. The section on botanical dewormers also includes information on other farm animals (pigs and poultry).

GENERAL INFORMATION

LIFE CYCLE OF PARASITES

Knowledge of the life cycle and characteristics of parasitic worms is essential for anyone wishing to reduce their use of dewormers. Figure 1 shows the direct life cycle common to most parasites. Some parasites however have an indirect cycle, which involves a host animal. For example, the liver fluke (Fasciola sp.) spends part of its life in certain snail species before infecting ruminants. Table 1 presents the main classes of internal parasites, whereas Table 2 provides a list of the main internal parasites of ruminants and their characteristics. Internal parasites are most often worms (helminths) but can also be protozoa, which will not be covered here. Worms are generally specific to one organ, such as the abomasum, duodenum, and lungs.

1. Parasite-infested animal harbours adult worms...

2. The eggs produced by the female are deposited in pastures with fecal matter...

3. They develop into various larvae stages.

4. Animal is contaminated by absorbing L3 larvae or infesting larvae with the grass.

5. The larvae make their way to the alimentary canal where they develop and produce a new generation of adult male or female parasites.

Figure 1 . Life cycle of internal parasites in ruminants

Source: Rivard et Huneault (1992)

Table 1 - Major classes of internal parasites

ROUNDWORMS or NemathelminthesStrongyles Gastrointestinal worms Abomasum worms: Haemonchus, Trichostrongylus, OstertagiaDuodenum worms: Trichostrongylus, Nematodirus, Cooperia, StrongyloidesLarge intestine worms: Oesophagostomum, TrichurisSmall intestine worms or Ancylostomidae (hookworm): Ancylostoma, Necator, Bunostomum Lungworm or metastrongyles: Dictyocaulus, Metastrongylus, ProtostrongylusAscarids: Ascaris (duodenum) FLATWORMS or platyhelminthesCestodes (tapeworm): Taenia, Echinococcus, Moniezia (duodenum)Trematodes: Fasciola, Dicrocoelium (liver)

Table 2 - Characteristics of main internal parasite genera in cattle, sheep and goats

ParasiteDescriptionInfected OrganLife CycleSymptomsHaemonchusM: 10-20 mm red F: 18-30 mm red and whiteAbomasumIS: 4-6 days PP: 3 weeksAnemia, soft swelling under jaw and abdomen, weakness, no weight gainOstertagiaM: 6-9 mm, brown F: 8-12 mmAbomasumIS: 4-6 days PP: 3 weeksSame as Haemonchus and also lack of appetite, diarrheaTrichostrongylusM: 4-5.5 mm F: 5-7 mm light brownAbomasum, duodenumIS: 3-4 days PP: 2-3 weeksSame as Haemonchus and also diarrhea and weight lossCooperiared M: 5-7 mm F: 6-9 mmDuodenumIS: 5-6 days PP: 15-20 daysSame as HaemonchusBunostomum10-30 mmDuodenumIS: ? PP: 30-56 daysEdema, anemia, weight loss, diarrheaStrongyloides (young animals)4-6 mmSmall intestineIS: 1-2 days PP: 8-14 daysAnorexia, enteritis, diarrheaChabertiaM: 13-14 mm F: 17-20 mmLarge intestineIS: 5-6 days PP: 42 daysAnemia, diarrhea with bloodOesophagostomumM: 12-17 mm F: 15-22 mmLarge intestineIS: 6-7 days PP: 41-45 daysDark green diarrhea edemaProtostrongylusM: 16-28 mm F: 25-35 mmLungsIS: 12-14 days PP: 30-37 daysPneumoniaDictyocaulusM: 30-80 mm F: 50-100 mmLungsIS: 6-7 days PP: 3-4 weeksSticky nasal discharge, difficulty breathing, cough

Legend: M = Males; F = Females; IS = Infectious stage: minimum number of days for parasite to reach infectious larvae stage (L3) after hatching of eggs; PP = Prepatent stage: period up to appearance of first eggs in dung after host is infected.

ROLE OF PARASITES

One may ask what the role of internal parasites is in nature. Do they reduce populations that are too large for the resources available? Overpopulation is often, if not always, inherent to agriculture. Or do parasites serve to cull the weaker animals, thus reinforcing a species' chances for survival? This is doubtful since it is generally not to the parasite's advantage to kill its host.

Whatever the case, it is normal in nature to find internal parasites in animals. In a natural setting, ruminants, although in herds, are constantly moving from one grazing area to another. It is therefore rare that the soil and grasses they eat are highly contaminated. Since levels of infestation are rarely excessive, animals have a chance to develop immunity.

The levels of infestation in goats and sheep that are raised in fairly natural settings tend to fluctuate with seasonal metabolisms without the animals being treated ²⁵ . It has been observed in goats and sheep that the highest levels of parasites correspond to periods of change: change in location (e.g. buildings to pasture in the spring); change in diet or use of food (e.g. lactation to maintenance diet). This would indicate that internal parasites may play a role in helping animals get through periods of change and adaptation.

THE BIODYNAMIC POINT OF VIEW

The point of view of biodynamic practitioners is focused largely on the role parasites play in animal digestion ³⁶ . They believe that gastrointestinal parasites play a role similar to earthworms in the soil; that they "aerate" the digestive system when it is overloaded by too much silage, grain or green hay. Since the roots of plants have the same effect as earthworms, biodynamic farmers add fodder roots (e.g. beets, carrots) to animal feed to replicate the role of parasites.

SUSCEPTIBILITY AND IMMUNITY

An animal without worms is not an ideal to strive for at any cost, at least not in organic farming. An animal that never has worms can not develop resistance and is thus extremely vulnerable when exposed to a parasite. Resistance or immunity is the ability to prevent or limit the establishment or subsequent development of worm infections. Tolerance is the ability to maintain good productivity despite infection. Contrarily, susceptibility to parasites is defined by how easily the animal becomes infected.

Ideally, grazing animals - especially the youngest ones - should ingest parasites in small quantities so that they may progressively develop immunity. This does not apply, however, to all internal parasite species.

Susceptibility according to species

Most internal parasites are specific to one or two species. When they are found in other animals, it is usually only for a brief period. Certain parasite species common to several types of domestic animals have even developed more specific "breeds".

Although there are just as many parasite species that can infect cattle, sheep or goats, sheep are the most susceptible to internal parasites because they graze close to the ground. Goats and sheep, whose manure is in pellet form, graze directly over their manure, which makes them more susceptible than cattle who do not have access to the grass under their pats. Also, cattle tend to avoid the less appetizing grass near the pats.

Susceptibility according to age

The age as well as the weight of animals determine susceptibility to parasites. Young animals do not have a great deal of immunity to parasites during their first year at pasture. The second year, they have partial immunity and, although they may appear healthy, they excrete many eggs. Adult animals are much less susceptible to most parasites, unless they are in poor living conditions. For example, it has been demonstrated that horses 15 years of age or older are rarely infected by strongyles ¹³ . Instead, parasites like Strongyloides are almost exclusively found in young animals.

Other susceptibility

Animals are sometimes kept in conditions that make them highly susceptible to parasites. In the case of a recently dewormed animal, internal parasites no longer exist. There is thus no equilibrium and such an animal put into a contaminated pasture may be seriously affected. Animals in poor condition (e.g.: recent illness, food shortages) are also highly susceptible.

Genetic resistance

There are breeds or lines of animals that are resistant or more tolerant to internal parasites. In New Zealand, herds of sheep resistant to internal parasites were developed from Romney sheep. The approach adopted by organic farmers in New Zealand is to over the years develop a herd that is increasingly resistant, using resistant rams only, and not ewes.

DETECTION

The first step in a pest control program is to assess the situation. The two methods used for this purpose are fecal counts and field counts.

FECAL COUNTS

Veterinary offices conduct fecal analyses. These consist in identifying the species of parasites present in the animal and counting the eggs of the parasites per gram of stool. Results of the analyses are often expressed in qualitative terms: absence of parasites, low, average or high levels. In all cases, it is important to identify the parasite. Two approaches may be used:

Herd analysis

Randomly selected feces are used to determine the general state of the herd. A minimum of three to five pats is required in the case of cattle. Ideally the stools should be collected at midday for the egg production is more uniform at this time ⁸ .

Individual analysis

Feces from a single animal are used by isolating the animal and collecting them first thing in the morning and then fresh stools during the day. The purpose of an individual analysis is to confirm that the symptoms observed in the animal are in fact caused by a parasite infection.

Stool analyses have limits as methods for evaluating the situation. Certain species of parasites lay few eggs, others many. Some lay eggs only at certain times of the year or during a particular period in the ruminant's life cycle. The best way to benefit from fecal counts is to always perform them at the same time each year and preferably during critical periods, such as when the animals are put out to pasture or before bringing them in for winter. If the parasite level is high, two to four analyses will provide a better picture of the situation. Comparison from one year to another of analyses conducted during the same period will indicate if there is an improvement or not.

Other instances where stool analyses are useful are, for example, when there is a change of pasture ground, when new animals arrive, or when there are animals who appear to be ailing or young animals that are not putting on weight.

FIELD COUNT

A field count is more difficult to do. In North America, it is mostly done as part of research programs. Samples that are representative of the grazed pasture must be collected, taking into account the height of the cut. In New Zealand, where this type of analysis is more common, it is considered with respect to sheep that if there are less than 100 larvae per 100 kg of grass there are neither economic losses nor drops in productivity ³⁹ .

PREVENTIVE MEASURES

From the ecological perspective, serious problems with internal parasites indicate that changes in feed, field management or soil management are required. By changing the production method or by using preventive measures, it is not necessary to rely on dewormers too often.

HERD MANAGEMENT

An animal is better able to resist or tolerate internal parasites when its living conditions are good. Links between diet, particularly vitamins and minerals, and susceptibility to internal parasites have been established in certain cases. Vitamins A, D and B complex are the most important vitamins required by animals to develop resistance to internal parasites ²³ . Nyberg and his coworkers, quoted by Quiquandon ³¹ , have established that a lack of cobalt promotes parasitism, since cobalt is the element used by animals to synthesize vitamin B12. Iron supplements are also very important where animals are affected by worms that drain the blood, like Haemonchus (worms in the abomasum) and Ancylostoma (intestinal worms). According to Lapage ²³ , animals should always have access to mineral blocks to compensate for the mineral deficiencies in pastures. In barns, animals should be fed from feeders rather than directly from the ground to avoid contamination as a result of their mouths coming into contact with manure or bedding.

At the New Zealand Pastoral Agriculture Research Institute, research is currently underway on how different foods affect resistance to parasites. Forage crops that contain condensed tannins, like trefoil, allow animals to better fight parasites than others that do not contain any, like alfalfa.

The age at which young animals are weaned is an important factor in regard to parasite resistance. For example, it has been observed that milk-fed calves are distinctly less contaminated by Haemonchus, Cooperia and Oesophagostomum than weaned calves ³⁴ . Milk does not have any effect, however, on Ostertagia and Trichostrongylus infections.

Ideally, females should calve during periods when risk of contamination is low, so that young animals are exposed as late as possible to potentially contaminated pastures. In Northern parts of North America, the winter period seems most appropriate in this respect. All new arrivals to the herd should be quarantined for four to six weeks and dewormed if there is any doubt.

PASTURE MANAGEMENT

Pasture management that is designed to prevent internal parasites requires long-term planning. It is by varying such factors as the density and age groups of animals and the time and intensity of grazing that serious infections can be avoided.

Animal density

Overpopulation increases the concentrations of parasites. It is generally estimated that parasite infections increase with the square of the animal load per surface unit. Therefore, for a given parcel of land, parasite infestations are four times greater where animal density is doubled. Density varies depending on whether grazing is intensive or extensive. Where there is extensive grazing, Antoine ² recommends less than 10 lambs/ha (varying according to context).

Pasture rotation, or intensive grazing, consists in dividing the pastures into parcels of land of varying sizes called paddocks and frequently moving the animals from one paddock to another to optimize grass use. From a parasitic point of view, the objective is to not put the animals back into the same field until the risk of infection has diminished. Theoretically this means that parasitism will decrease if the number of parcels of land is increased or the rotation time is increased. Unfortunately, in practice, it appears difficult to diminish the parasitic load with intensive grazing. The lifespan of L3 larvae is in fact always greater than the time required between grazing periods for maximum grass use. Therefore, if one waits six weeks before returning animals to a lot, the quality of the grass decreases as well as the quantity of grass ingested by the animals, whereas the level of parasites only diminishes slightly.

Grazing height

About 80% of parasites live in the first five centimetres of vegetation. Parasite infection and multiplication are prevented by letting animals graze only 10 cm from the ground in a field where there are parasites. For new pastures, however, New Zealander Vaughan Jones ¹⁸ , an expert on intensive grazing, recommends having animals graze very close to the ground, so that the sun can dry the pats quickly and thus diminish the chances of survival of parasites brought in with the animals. A new pasture is considered a field where animals have not been grazing for a number of years. It may be a pasture seeded in the spring or a hay or silage field that is used as pasture after harvest.

Grazing time

The drier the grass, the more parasites will stay at the base of the plants. It is estimated that in wet grass, larvae can be found over 30 cm away from the pats, whereas they venture only a few centimetres away when the grass is dry. The risk of infection is greatly lowered by waiting until the dew has lifted or until the grass has dried after rain before putting animals out to pasture.

The larvae of most parasites move to the tops of plants when light levels are low, that is, when the sky is overcast or at sunrise and sunset. They avoid strong light however. Limiting grazing time to when the sun is strong also diminishes the risk of infection.

Since we know that the density of L3 larvae is generally at a maximum in the fall and at a minimum in the summer, it is preferable to limit grazing in highly contaminated fields to the summer months to reduce levels of ingestion. In the fall, the animals should ideally be put in a new pasture.

Risks of infection from most parasites can be avoided in the spring by waiting until the end of spring to put cattle out to grass, and even later in areas where soil drainage is poor. In practice, this solution is not very satisfactory, both economically and ecologically, because it implies shortening the grazing season, which is quite short as it is in most northern regions, and feeding the animals more hay.

Harrowing Pastures

With respect to parasites, harrowing pastures is generally not recommended. The parasite eggs and larvae are in fact scattered throughout the pasture. This makes it impossible for the animals to graze selectively, that is, to graze around the pats. Harrowing would be appropriate, however, at the beginning of a dry period in a field that the animals will not be returning to for quite some time.

Biodynamic practitioners have a different point of view. They consider that parasites proliferate in an environment that is nitrogen-rich and sheltered from light. They therefore recommend breaking up the pats to let in air and light.

Grazing by age group

Since the susceptibility of animals varies with age, it is logical to graze the younger animals in fields where parasite populations are very low.

Organic farmers in New Zealand have established some rules to prevent internal parasites in lambs and ewes. Thus, in intensive grazing, lambs do not have access to paddocks or sections of a pasture already grazed by ewes or other lambs in order to prevent reinfection. Lambs should graze preferably in new pastures, hay or silage fields, or should be greenfed.

Since sheep graze year-round in New Zealand, there is usually an increase in parasites in the spring, due to a drop in immunity in ewes after lambing. Parasite levels rise again at the end of the summer to early fall. Consequently, ewes do not go out to pasture until the lambs are weaned. After weaning, the ewes graze in a different part of the farm while alternate groups of lambs graze in another sector. These sectors are rotated each year.

Another New Zealand technique is used to reduce parasite infection in calves. This technique consists in grazing the calves alone or in pairs on a rotating basis. The calves remain in the same lots all the time while the cows are rotated. Very good results have been obtained this way, even though there is no clear reason why this method works.

Another common practice used with calves is to put them in a new pasture. To fight Ostertagia infection, for instance, the calves would be placed in an old field at the beginning of the season, then dewormed and brought to a parasite-free field in early July.

In dairy herds, young cows can be slowly immunized by allowing them to graze in new pastures with two dry cows that serve as sources of infection. The ingestion rate of L3 larvae is therefore quite low, allowing for controlled infection and development of immunity.

Multispecies grazing

Producers who have more than one animal species (e.g. cattle and sheep) can alternate grazing of different animal species which, although not foolproof, can help to break the parasite cycles. Several parasite species cannot infect two different animal species. There are even certain species of worms that affect only a particular ruminant species.

Cattle and sheep herds can be combined in three ways:

(1) Graze the cattle to "clean" the pasture after the lambs have grazed. The cattle ingest a significant quantity of mature larvae from the lamb stools. If the cattle are allowed to graze the grass down to 3 to 5 cm from the ground, many parasites will be killed off from exposure to the sun;

(2) Graze the cattle before the sheep to control pasture quality;

(3) Graze the cattle and sheep together where vegetation is abundant.

SOIL MANAGEMENT

Deworming treatments have little effect if the animals are returned to the same larvae infested field. It is therefore important to clean the pasture as much as possible to reduce, if not eliminate, the parasites. Possible strategies for this are resting the land, planting, using amendments or fertilizers to reduce parasite populations, and improving drainage.

Resting the land

This consists in preventing the animals from grazing in the same field or paddock. Since freezing temperatures or droughts eliminate some infectious larvae, cold or dry periods can be relied upon to reduce or extend rest periods. A three-year rest period (short rotation) is required for a complete cleaning.

Nematicide plants

Mustard is an excellent nematicide plant and so are tagetes. For more information on the subject, consult the Agro-Bio synthesis entitled "Controlling nematodes with nematicide plants".

Amendments and fertilizers

Amendments that change the pH, the mineral balance or that create an environment which is inappropriate for parasites may help to clean the land. The choice of amendment or fertilizer depends on the type of parasite. According to Nunnery ²⁶ :

- Salt (sodium chloride) is appropriate for use against ancylostoma larvae such as Bunostomum. Salt must be used with caution on account of its deflocculating properties in clay soils, and should not be used on a regular basis.

- Liming and acidification with copper sulphate are appropriate against liver fluke (Fasciola), which is transmitted by snails.

- Copper sulphate is also effective against the Dictyocaulus lungworm. Mackenzie ²⁵ recommends applying 23 kg/ha of copper sulphate mixed with 90 kg/ha of sand in this case.

Manure management

Manure to be used for spreading may be filled with parasite eggs and larvae. Composting is a good way to clean manure as the larvae and eggs of nematodes are destroyed at temperatures as low as 32 to 34C. They are killed in as little as one hour at 50C, and in less than four hours at 44C. It is important, when turning the compost over, to ensure that the outer layer which has heated less, be mixed towards the middle of the pile. Composting is a useful technique before manure spreading in the case of truly dangerous parasites like lungworm.

Bedding is also important. For example, it has been demonstrated that eggs and larvae are all killed in horse manure mixed with straw bedding, as well as horse manure mixed in a one to four ratio with cow manure ³ .

Parnell ^28,29 studied the effects of adding different nitrogen fertilizers to, among others, sheep and horse manure. Urea was the most efficient nitrogen fertilizer for cleaning manure, with a required proportion of 1:125. Kainite (sulphate of potassium and sodium) was the most efficient non-nitrogen fertilizer to add to manure, with a required proportion of 1:23. In practical terms, Parnell suggested applying these substances to the surface only, since temperatures in the middle of the manure pile would be high enough to eliminate the parasites.

Improving drainage

Pastures or parts of pastures that remain wet for long periods are an ideal environment for the survival of internal parasite larvae. Standard drainage of a field may reduce the larvae's chances of survival and extend grazing periods. Localized drainage of wet patches prevents infectious larvae from persisting in an otherwise clean field. It is also important that cattle watering areas be situated in well-drained places with gravel or even cement added. Animals must be prevented from accessing swamps or streams at all costs because of the parasitic risks, the damage the animals cause to these areas and the risks of pollution.

PARASITE CONTROL METHODS

GENERAL INFORMATION

When to deworm

It is crucial to choose the right time to carry out deworming treatments. At a certain stage of their development inside the animal, some parasites embed themselves in the mucous membranes and enter hypobiosis (e.g. Ostertagia). They are largely inactive at this stage and relatively harmless to the host. Deworming treatments have little or no effect when performed at this time.

A sensible conventional practice to employ against parasites is to perform a first treatment three weeks after the animals have been put out to pasture and a second treatment three weeks later. The first treatment serves to prevent infection by infectious larvae (L3 stage) - before the new adults formed inside the animals have begun to lay eggs profusely and contaminate the pastures. When the second treatment is given, typically in early July, a large portion of the infectious larvae in the pastures will have died as a result of the hot dry conditions.

According to a traditional French practice, deworming treatments are performed preferably when there is a new moon. The worms are more active at this time and therefore easier to dislodge. On the other hand, Rudolf Steiner, the father of biodynamic agriculture, recommends performing deworming treatments during a full moon.

Lapage ²³ suggests deworming at the approach of dry or cold periods to benefit from the sterilizing effect of these factors.

Which animal to deworm

Antoine ² recommends deworming:

- susceptible animals about three weeks after being put out to pasture;

- grazing companions of heavily infested animals;

- all animals in heavily grazed pastures, in the summer, after a few hot and very humid nights.

How to deworm

All deworming treatments involving natural products should ideally be preceded and followed by a fasting period, except in the case of nursed young animals. Animals should not be fed for a period of 12 to 48 hours before the treatment and another 6-hour period afterwards. A laxative diet or purge should then follow. Castor oil is appropriate for non-ruminants, and a saline diuretic or sodium sulphate and magnesium for ruminants. Liquid deworming treatments that animals do not willingly ingest can be administered using a funnel and a flexible tube put down the animal's throat, or a "gun" designed for this purpose.

In the case of milking dairy cows, it is difficult to fast the animals. Subsequently, it may be simpler to lighten their diet by not using silage or concentrates rather than to fast them. Note that putting animals out to pasture in the spring has a laxative effect on them. It seems appropriate therefore to treat the animals at that time.

For confined animals, a radically different way to deworm is to spray essential oils using an atomizer in order to fill the air with aerosols that have anthelminthic (synonym with dewormer) properties. Gape-infested pheasants have successfully been treated with pyrethrum oil, goosefoot oil and roto-resin using that method ¹⁵ .

BOTANICAL DEWORMERS

Several plants have anthelminthic properties, and were in fact a part of the traditional husbandry before synthetic dewormers were commonly adopted. In Québec, for instance, it was common practice to feed evergreen branches (pine, spruce or fir branches) to sheep. Although based on conventional wisdom, veterinary research zeroed in on deworming plants, also called anthelminthic plants, particularly before the Second World War in Western countries then, subsequently, mainly in Eastern countries and India. There is reliable data available on the effects of several plants or plant extracts on certain parasites, enabling us to know the limits of these substances.

Allopathy versus homeopathy

Several of the dewormer plants mentioned below may cause side effects in animals. The most powerful natural dewormers are often potential poisons. It is therefore important to follow the indicated dosages. A way to avoid side effects is to administer these plants in the form of homeopathic preparations. The advantage of homeopathic remedies is that they do not require a fasting period beforehand and laxative diet after the treatment.

Garlic

Garlic is a common plant dewormer that is easy to find. It is known to be active against, among others, Ascaris, Enterobius and, of particular interest for ruminants, against lungworm in general ¹ . It must be used, however, as prevention (prophylaxis) rather than as treatment or with other products. In fact, garlic does not prevent the production of eggs but prevents the eggs of certain parasites from developing into larvae ⁵ . In the ninth century, in Persia, Avicenne recommended the use of garlic as an additive rather than as a dewormer alone. Garlic is incorporated into certain commercial homeopathic or allopathic dewormers, but always with other plant-derived substances. The numerous therapeutic properties of garlic come mainly from its high sulphur content.

Garlic can be administered in several ways:

Fresh : Fresh minced garlic proved to be clearly more efficient than garlic extracts for controlling internal parasites in carp ³⁰ . Using fresh garlic is ideal although not necessarily the most practical on a day-to-day basis. The leaves and bulbs may also be used. If the animals do not want to eat the leaves whole, they may be cut into small pieces, mixed with molasses and bran, and shaped into small balls. The bulbs may be grated and mashed with molasses or honey and flour. Garlic may also be planted directly in the pastures in such way that the animals have access to it as needed.

Powder : The most practical way to administer garlic is undoubtedly to add powdered garlic to animal feed. Powdered garlic can be bought at a reasonable cost in bulk from major food manufacturers (e.g. McCormick, Quest International, Griffith Laboratories, etc.).

Pills : This is a method that is useful only for very small herds. Two or three pills of four grains is the required daily dosage for one sheep.

Juice : British herbalist Grieve ¹⁶ suggested using garlic juice or garlic milk as a dewormer. Garlic milk is made by boiling bulbs mashed in milk. Some researchers recommend, however, not boiling garlic as this reduces its effectiveness against parasite eggs and larvae.

Mother tincture : Garlic mother tincture is given in dosages of 20 drops/day/10 kg of live weight.

In the case of dairy animals, it is preferable to feed them garlic during or immediately after milking so that the milk does not pick up the taste.

Wormwood

Wormwood, as its name suggests, is an excellent dewormer. Many wormwood species have deworming properties.

- Common mugwort (Artemisia vulgaris) is effective against Protostrongylus, Dictyocaulus and Bunostomum. Sheep, goats and fowl readily consume it ¹⁰ .

- Common wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) must be used with caution as it may be dangerous if used regularly or excessively. The dried and crushed flowers may be used or steeped in cold water. De Baïracli-Levy ⁹ suggests the following recipe for dewormer balls: four teaspoons of cayenne pepper powder, two teaspoons of powdered common wormwood mixed with honey and flour.

- Eurasian wormwood (Artemisia cina) is a desert plant that is used to make santonin and the homeopathic remedy Cina, which are used as dewormers. Santonin is extracted from the dried buds of the plant. The buds are then treated with liquid lime and dried again. Santonin acts against most parasites except Echinococcus. It must be used with caution, however, because even in small doses it causes side effects, particularly eye problems. Homeopathic Cina may be acquired as mother tincture, administered in 2 to 3 drops/10 kg, morning and evening for 3 weeks, or in granules in different dilutions. Consult a homeopathic veterinarian for more information.

- The dried, powdered shoots of Artemisia herba-alba wormwood (a species common to North Africa) administered in dosages of 10 to 30 g per goat proved highly effective against Haemonchus contortus ¹⁷ .

- Tarragon (Artemisia dracunculus) also has deworming properties. Several wormwood species grow wild in North America. It might be a good idea to let these plants grow along pastures where the animals can eat them as needed.

Wild ginger

Wild ginger or snakeroot (Asarum canadense) grows in wooded areas. This plant is very similar to European wild ginger which was used as an anthelminthic purge for cattle and horses. The dosage per animal is 20 to 30 g of the aerial parts of snakeroot mixed with wet bran. Wild ginger also has antibacterial properties. If planning to use this plant, remember that wild ginger, as well as wild garlic, require several years to reproduce.

Goosefoot

Chenopodium ambrosioides or goosefoot is a widely used dewormer plant. In Brazil, the plant is fed directly to pigs to deworm them. The powdered seeds serve as a dewormer and insecticide. The Japanese make a dewormer tea with the leaves. Oil from the goosefoot, although highly efficient, is extremely toxic. Human consumption has often led to strong side effects (nausea, headaches) and even death in some cases. It is better to use less hazardous substances than goosefoot oil.

Conifers

Conifers, like garlic, are undoubtedly more indicated in prophylactic form, that is, in small quantities in daily food, rather than as a curative treatment. In Russia, Ascaris infestations in pigs were reduced by giving them 1 to 2 kg of pine needles each day for 2 to 4 weeks ³⁹ and mixtures of conifer needle powder and sulphur or vitamins were also used successfully against internal parasites.

In practical terms, it is easier to use pitch, also called turpentine, extracted from pine and various other conifers. Turpentine spirits are a byproduct of turpentine distillation. Cabaret ⁶ prescribes 50 to 100 ml of spirits produced from turpentine distillation with a triple volume of castor oil against ruminant liver fluke and horse strongyles. A mixture of linseed oil (edible and not the variety found in hardware stores) and turpentine spirits constitutes a powerful dewormer, but which must be used with caution. If turpentine enters the respiratory system it may cause the spasmodic closure of the mouth. It is therefore preferable to use rolled oats to soak up the turpentine before feeding it to animals. For one lamb, 10 to 15 drops of turpentine spirits are mixed with an ounce of linseed oil and a pinch of ground ginger; for an adult sheep, 80 drops in two ounces of linseed oil.

Common juniper (Juniperus communis) has deworming properties, notably against liver fluke. Sheep enjoy juniper berries and deer graze on the plant. It might be interesting to allow restricted access to woodlands where the animals can find conifers to eat if they wish.

Crucifers (mustard family)

White or black mustard seeds in the amount of 2 ounces per lamb is a safe dewormer, and it is recommended allowing the herd access to mustard in the pasture or elsewhere. In India, some cattle farmers use mustard oil against parasites in the amount of 100 to 150 g per day for one week. Mustard oil is more of a laxative than a dewormer, which is nevertheless useful in eliminating some parasites.

The following crucifers are dewormers and may be added to animal feed: radishes, raw grated turnips or horseradish, nasturtium seeds.

Cucurbits

The seeds of squash, pumpkins and many other vine crops contain a deworming compound called cucurbitacin that is more or less active depending on the parasite ¹² . The seeds may be fed directly to animals as the Canadian pioneers once did, but it is better to extract the main ingredient using water, alcohol or ether, for an effect that is similar to that of pumpkin seeds. Aqueous extracts from squash seeds (dilution 1/50) are effective against Haemonchus contortus ³⁸ .

Pumpkin seed dewormer ²⁴

- Shell and grind up the pumpkin seeds (or buy them at a grocery store).

- Mix 500 g of the seeds with three litres of water.

- Simmer (do not boil), while stirring, for 30 minutes.

- Let cool 30 minutes.

- Filter through a cloth, squeezing to remove as much juice as possible.

- Reduce over low heat to 150-200 ml.

- Make sure to remove oily scum.

- Refrigerate.

Fern

The rhizomes and young shoots (fiddleheads) of the male fern (Dryopteris filix-mas) have deworming properties that have long been recognized in Europe, among others, against tapeworms (Taenia). The North American equivalent of the male fern is the evergreen shield-fern (Dryopteris marginalis). Although in the past, ether extract of the male fern was widely used against the liver fluke in the British Isles, the male fern does not give satisfactory results in the case of the Dicrocoelium fluke in sheep ¹⁴ , nor against Echinococcus in dogs.

The success of fern is enhanced by using fresh material and mixing it with glycerine. The male fern must be used with caution because it is toxic in high doses. In humans, for instance, it can cause headaches and nausea; the maximum dose is 7 g per adult.

Lupine

A diet made up entirely of freshly cut, lightly salted, lupine is a good dewormer that works against a large number of intestinal worms in pigs, including Trichuris (100% efficient), Strongyloides (66% efficient), Ascaris (50% efficient) ⁷ . Lupine is equally efficient against Parascaris and Strongylus in horses. It is important not to give free access to lupine, otherwise symptoms of poisoning may occur.

Nuts

Several vegetable species produce nuts that have anthelminthic properties, but unfortunately it is mostly tropical species like areca and cashew shells that are used. The fresh sap of the hazelnut (Corylus) is highly effective against Ascaris ₂₂ .

Umbelliferae

Carrot seeds (Daucus carota), either wild or cultivated, are dewormers, as are teas made with the roots. A mixture of anise, cumin and juniper seeds is effective against Dictyocaulus lungworm in calves. Fennel leaves and seeds are also used as dewormers; the oil is a dewormer but very toxic too. In a central Asian area of the former USSR, it is common practice to graze sheep infected with Haemonchus in pastures where there are giant fennel (Ferula gigantea) and other Ferula species ⁴² . The worms are eliminated after two or three days and the plant is grazed for roughly 20 days. In many parts of North America, carrots and wild parsnips that grow abundantly along fields and roads could probably be used in the same way.

Pyrethrum

Pyrethrum (Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium) is commonly used as an insecticide in agriculture. It also has anthelminthic properties. As a dewormer, it is administered in powder form in animal feed. It may be safely used for warm-blooded animals, unless it is injected. In this case, it must be mixed with oil and the necessary precautions taken.

Pyrethrum is 100% effective against ascarids in chickens, in the amount of 200 mg/bird using 0.8% pyrethrum ³² . A complete cure was obtained against Ascaris in chickens, by giving them pyrethrum powder (concentration unknown), using 2% of the ration for 7 days ⁴⁴ . Pyrethrum is also useful against strongyles in horses, in the amount of 3.5 mg/kg of live weight ³⁵ . For more information on the veterinary uses of pyrethrum, see Urbain and Guillot ⁴¹ .

Although a Mediterranean plant, pyrethrum may be cultivated easily in many places. For more information on pyrethrum culture, see the Agro-Bio synthesis entitled "Home Production of Pyrethrum", available at EAP.

Tobacco

Tobacco and its derivatives (nicotine, nicotine sulphate) have been used as dewormers, particularly for fowl. With other farm animals, the mortal dose is practically the same for the worms as for the animals themselves!

Tansy

Tansy seeds (Tanacetum vulgare) are used against Nematodirus in sheep ²⁷ . The oil from the flowers is also anthelminthic. An aqueous extract of tansy flowers and leaves is 100% effective in eliminating Ascaris from young horses and dogs, in the amount of 0.5ml/kg live weight in two doses administered one day apart and preceded by a one-day fast ¹⁹ . One kilo of leaves and flowers produces about one litre of extract. Cows and sheep consume fresh tansy easily, but goats, horses and pigs are not really fond of it.

Other plants

Blackberries, raspberries, and young ash and elder shoots are also other plant species with deworming properties that should be accessible in pastures. According to Cabaret ⁶ , beech creosote is used against lungworm in ruminants. The following plants, which grow naturally or may be cultivated in most of North America, are listed by Duke ¹¹ as having deworming properties:

- Yarrow (Achilea millefolium), which is highly toxic to calves;
- Sweet flag or calamus (Acorus calamus);
- Agrimony (Agrimonia);
- Roots or root infusions of Indian hemp (Apocynum cannabinum);
- Calendula (Calendula officinalis);
- Hemp (Cannabis saliva);
- Blue cohosh (Caulopyllum thalictroides);
- Lady slipper root extract (Cypripedium calceolus);
- Sweet gale or bog myrtle (Myrica gale);
- Pokeweed (Phytolacca americana);
- Common knotgrass (Polygonum aviculare);
- Rue (Ruta graveolens);
- Bloodroot (Sanguinaria canadensis);
- Savory (Satureja montana);
- Skullcap (Scutellaria lateriflora);
- Skunk cabbage or skunk weed (Symplocarpus foetidus);
- Nettle (Urtica dioica) seeds and roots;
- Valerian (Valeriana officinalis);
- Verbena (Verbena officinalis);
- Periwinkle (Vinca minor).

A large number of tropical plants, and even some types of marine algae, also are reputed to have deworming properties.

Mixes

The commercial "natural" dewormer preparations, whether they are allopathic or homeopathic, are often mixes of different types of vegetation. The purpose of these mixes is to expand the range of action and, in some cases, they act, synergistically. Often, both tropical plants and those from temperate climates are included. Homeopathic laboratories each offer their own mixes, also called complexes. A list of major homeopathic laboratories is presented in the Useful Addresses section.

OTHER DEWORMERS

Diatomaceous earth

Diatomaceous earth is made from the remains of fossilized marine algae called diatoms. The product is mined and reduced to powder form. This powder acts as tiny pieces of glass that tear the shells of insects and other arthropods. Many farmers add diatomaceous earth to the rations of their animals, among others, because it contains minerals and is relatively inexpensive.

Some claim that diatomaceous earth acts as a dewormer when added on a regular basis in the amount of 2% of the ration. Scientific tests on the subject are limited however and opinions of farmers are contradictory. Moreover, diatomaceous earth has no effect on lungworm and is not very appetizing. It may also be a lung irritant. Given that the level of dust is already quite high in barns, diatomaceous earth does not seem appropriate when the animals are fed indoors. The main motivation for adding diatomaceous earth to rations should not be to control internal parasites. If it is to be used, it is important to use non-calcined diatomaceous earth and without additives for insecticide use. See the Useful Addresses section for the address of a supplier of diatomaceous earth for animal use.

Surfactants

Many American farmers use Shaklee's Basic H surfactant as cattle dewormer with success. However, the company does not endorse this use of the product. Also, the organic certification standards do not always allow its use because the exact nature of the product is a trade secret, although we know it is based on two soybeans enzymes. Grazier Joel Salatin from Virginia gives the product to his cattle through water at a rate of 1 cup of Basic H per 100 American gallons of water (a quarter cup into 100 litres) . He confines the animals for two days to make sure all the animals get it. Treatment is repeated 6 times a year, and costs less than 50 cents per head.

Copper sulphate

Copper sulphate, a mineral substance that already meets organic farming specifications for plant production, has a strong deworming action against certain parasites, particularly Haemonchus contortus and Trichostrongylus axei, which affect the abomasum. Copper sulphate is administered in a 1% solution in water, in the amount of 50 ml per lamb or 100 ml per adult sheep, and 30 ml/22.5 kg of live weight for calves to a maximum of 100 ml. This dewormer may be administered with a funnel and flexible tube. Treatment is given in the morning before the animals have eaten, followed by castor oil one half hour later. It is important not to feed animals for two hours following treatment because of poisoning risks.

Others

Peroxide and charcoal also have deworming properties according to some practitioners and salesmen. There is insufficient scientific data however to support these claims.

CONCLUSION

As to conclude, the following points can be highlighted from this review on alternative internal parasites control:

- Parasite control starts with good knowledge of the parasites and how they affect livestock.
- Susceptibility and resistance to internal parasites in animals is affected by several factors including the season, the age of the animals, nutrition, and pasture management.
- Fecal counts are worthwhile to detect the types and number of parasites affecting the herd or an individual. These should be done in critical periods such as spring and fall.
- As prevention, animals should not be allowed to graze when pastures are wet. Young animals should preferably be put in new pastures where parasite levels are low. Manure should be composted and soil drainage improved where needed.
- Deworming can be done when the animals are put out to pasture and again three weeks later. Deworming with natural products should be preceded and followed by a fasting period except in the case of homeopathic remedies.
- Garlic and conifers are good as prophylactic dewormers for regular use. Powdered garlic is easily obtained in bulk.
- More potent botanical dewormers include wormwoods, snakeroot, cucurbits, umbelliferae and tansy. Goosefoot, fern, lupine and tobacco have serious side-effects that discourage their use.
- Homeopathic remedies are easy to use, do not require fasting and can be found easily. Combinations of different homeopathic remedies offered by homeopathic laboratories have a good range of action against parasites.
- Other products used as dewormers are diatomaceous earth, charcoal, peroxide and surfactants such as Shaklee's Basic H. There is no scientific evidence for the effectiveness of these products as dewormers, but many farmers use them and swear to their validity.

Alternatives to the utilization of synthetic dewormers exist to control internal parasites in ruminants. As is often the case in organic farming, we should aim not to eliminate these pests but to learn to coexist with them.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Anonymous. 1953. Garlic as an anthelmintic. Veterinary Record, 65(28):436.

2. Antoine, D. 1981. En élevage biologique faut-il déparasiter les animaux? Nature et Progrès, October/November/December 1981:12-16.

3. Antipin, D.N. 1941. [Research on deworming methods for horse and cow manures]. Vestnik Selsk. Nauki Veterinafiya, 1941 (2):42-56.

4. Baker, F.H. and R.K. Jones. 1985. Proceedings of a conference on multispecies grazing. Winrock International Institute for Agricultural Development, Morrilton, Arkansas.

5. Bastidas, G.J. 1969. Effect of ingested garlic on Necator americanus and Ancylostoma caninum. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg., 18(6):920-923.

6. Cabaret, J. 1986. 167 plantes Pour soigner les animaux. Editions du Point Vétérinaire, Maisons-Alfort, France. 192 pages.

7. Chebotarev, R. S. 1956. [The use of some fodder plants in the control of parasitic infections of farm animals]. Problemi Parazitologli, Transactions of the Scientific Conference of the Parasitologists of Ukrainian SSR, pages 194-197.

8. Cornils, W. 1935. Systematische Untersuchunger uber Strongylideneier und Strongyliden im Kot und Darminhalt des Pferdes. Berlin Dissert. 43 pages.

9. De Baïracli Levy, J. 1973. Herbal handbook for farm and stable. Faber and Faber, London.

10. Deschiens, R. 1944. Action comparée de la tanaisie et de l'armoise sur les formes larvaires de nématodes parasitaires et saprophytes. Bulletin de la société de Pathologie Exotique, 37(3/4) :111 -125.

11. Duke, J.A. 1985. CRC Handbook of medicinal herbs. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, 677 pages.

12. Forgacs, P., J. Provost and R. Tiberghion. 1970. Etude expérimentale de l'activité anthelminthique de quelques cucurbitacines. Chim. Thér., 5(3):205-210.

13. Foster, A.O. 1937. A relationship in equines between age of host and number of strongylid parasites. Am. J. Hyg., 25:66-75.

14. Guilhon, J. 1956. Recherches sur le traitement spécifique de la dicrocoéliose ovine. Recueil de Médicine Vétérinaire, 132(10):733-749.

15. Guilhon, J. and J.P. Petit. 1960. Traitement de la syngamose des faisandeaux par les aérosols anthelminthiques. Compte-Rendu des Séances de l'Académie d'Agriculture de France, 46(7):1017-1020.

16. Grieve, M. 1971. A modern herbal. Volume 1. Dover, New York. 427 pages.

17. Idris, Um El A.A., S.E.I. Adam and G. Tartour. 1982. The anthelmintic efficacy of Artemisia herba-alba against Haemonchus contortus infection in goats. National Institute of Animal Health Quarterly, Japan, 22(3):138-143.

18. Jones, V. 1993. Grazing to control worms. The New Farm, 15(7):52-53.

19. Karamisheva, E.N. 1956. [Treating Parascariasis in foals and ascariasis in dogs with tansy]. Veterinariya, 33(12):29-30.

20. Kidd, R. 1993a. Roundup roundworms. The New Farm, 15(1):6-8.

21. Kidd, R. 1993b. Control parasites ornanically? The New Farm, 159(7):7-11.

22. Krotov, All. and D.G. Timoshin. 1957. [Trials of new preparations of vegetable origin against ascaridiasis in catsl. Meditsinskaya Parazitologiya i Parazitornie Bolezni, Moscow, 26(1):87-92.

23. Lapage, G. 1959. Mönnig's veterinary helminthology and entomology. 4th edition. Baillière, Tindall and Cox, London. 511 pages.

24. Lys. P., J Adès and Y. Badre. 1955. Essais sur les propriétés anthelminthique des graines de courge. Revue Médicale du Moyen-Orient, 12(3):339-340.

25. Mackenzie, D. 1967. Goat husbandry. Faber and Faber, London.

26. Nunnery. J. 1953. The control of internal parasites by the application of chemicals to the soil. Auburn Veterinarian, Alabama, 10(1):48-51.

27. Papchenkov, N.Y. 1968. [Tanacetum vulgare seed and naphtaman against Nematodirus infections in sheepl. Veterinarya Mosk., 45(8):48-49.

28. Parnell, l.W. 1937. Studies on the biodynamics and control of the bursate nematodes of horses and sheep. IV. On the lethal effects of some nitrogenous fertilizers on the free-living stages of sclerostomes. Canadian Journal of Research, Section D, 15(7):127-145.

29. Parnell, l.W. 1938. Studies on the biodynamics and control of the bursate nematodes of horses and sheep. V. Comparisons of the the lethal effects of some nonnitrogenous fertilizers on the free-living stages of sclerostomes. Canadian Journal of Research, Section D, 16(4)73-88.

30. Pena, N., A. Auro and H. Sumano. 1988. A comparative trial of garlic, its extract and ammonium Potassium tartrate as anthelmintics in carp. J. of Ethnopharm., 24(2-3): 199-203.

31. Quiquandon, H. 1978. 12 balles pour un veto. Tome II. 1ere partie. Éditions Agriculture et Vie. 239 pages.

32. Rebrassier, R.E. 1934. Pyrethrum as an anthelminthic for Ascaridia lineata. J. Amer. Vet. Med. Ass., 84:645-648.

33. Rivard, G and G. Huneault. 1992. Les parasites internes des bovins de boucherie. Bovins du Québec, August 1992:6-11.

34. Rohrbacher, Jr. G.H., D.A. Porter and H. Herlich. 1958. The effect of milk in the diet of calves and rabbits upon the development of trichostrongylid nematodes. Am. J. of Vet. Res., 19(72):625-631.

35. Rueda, E.A. 1954. [Comparison of pyrethrum and phenothiazine as anthelminthics anainst strongyles in horses]. Rev. milit. B. Aires, 2:147-152 and 154-156.

36. Salatin, J. 1994. Using Shaklee Basic H soap. Stockman Grass Farmer, 51(11):27-28.

37. Selinger, L. 1984. Cours d'élevage bio-dynamique. Mouvement de culture biodynamique, Huningue, France. 26 pages.

38. Sharma, L. D., H.S. Bahga and P.S. Srivastava. 1971. In vitro anthelmintic screening of indegenous medicinal plants against Haemonchus contortus of sheep and goats. Indian J. of Animal Research, 5(1):33-38.

39. Slepnev, N.K. 1967. [Use of some plants in the control of ascariasis in pigs]. Vetrinariya Moscow, 44(6):61-62.

40. Stieffel, W., J. Niezen and N. Thomson. 1992. Investigations into the control of intestinal parasites in lambs without the use of conventional anthelmintics. Pages 219 to 228 In Boehncke, E. and V. Molkenthin. 1992. Alternatives in animal husbandry. Proceedings of the International Conference on Alternatives in Animal Husbandry, Witzenhausen, 22-25 July 1991, Kassel University, Germany.

41. Urbain, A. and G. Guillot. 1931. Sur les pyréthrines et leur emploi en médecine vétérinaire. Rev. Path. Comp., 31 :493-502.

42. Utyanganov, A. A. and K.M. Yumaev. 1960. [The anthelmintic properties of Ferula plantsl. Veterinariya, 37(9):40-41.

43. Wall, R. and L. Strong. 1987. Environmental consequences of treating cattle with the antiparasitic drug ivermectin. Nature, 327:418-421.

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How to Give Injections

Thu, 03 Apr 2025 20:48:49 GMT

For new flock owners, the thought of giving injections can be daunting. Willingness to do your injections will save you a great deal of money on vet bills, though. As a new shepherd/ess, a good option would be to have the vet come once to show you how to do the injections, both intramuscular and subcutaneous. Then, you will have confidence to do future injections on your own. Below, you will find links to a couple of sites that outline pretty well how to give injections in sheep or goats.

How to give injections

Giving Injections

Know the Lingo: Glossary of Sheep Terms

Thu, 03 Apr 2025 20:48:48 GMT

Abattoir -a facility where farm animals are killed and processed into meat products.

Abomasum - the fourth compartment of the stomach of a ruminant; the one where digestion takes place.

Abortion - premature loss of a pregnancy.

Accelerated lambing - when a ewe lambs more often than once a year.

AFO - Agricultural operations where livestock are kept and raised in confined situations. Some states regular AFOs.

Afterbirth - the placenta and fetal membranes that are expelled from the uterus after the lambs are born.

Amino acid - one of the building blocks of protein.

Anemia - a lower than normal number of red blood cells.

Animal unit - A unit represented by one mature cow or horse, or by as many animals as consume an equivalent amount of feed, such as 7 sheep.

Animal unit month (AUM) - The quantity of forage required by one mature cow and her calf (or the equivalent, in sheep or horses, for instance) for one month.

Annual plant - a plant that usually germinates, flowers and dies in one year.

Anthelmintic - medicine which kills certain types of intestinal worms.

Antibiotic - drug that kills bacteria and other germs.

Antibodies - proteins produced by the immune system to fight specific bacteria, viruses, or other antigens.

Anti-toxin - an antibody that can neutralize a specific toxin.

Artificial Insemination (AI) - process whereby semen is placed within a female's uterus by artificial means i.e. other than sexual intercourse.

ASI - American Sheep Industry Association. Federation of state sheep associations.

Banding - the process of applying rubber bands to the tail or scrotum for docking and castrating.

Bellwether - sheep that leads the herd often wearing a bell .

Bloat - excessive accumulation of gases in the rumen of an animal.

Bottle jaw - Edema or fluid accumulation, under the jaw. A sign of infection with Haemonchus in sheep.

Breech birth - a birth in which the lamb is presented backwards with the rear legs tucked under and only the tail near the opening.

Browse - parts of woody plants, including twigs, shoots, and leaves.

Buck - slang term for a male sheep.

Bummer - slang term for an orphan lamb.

Burdizzo - castration method that uses a large clamp to crush the blood vessels leading into the testicles.

CAFO - cconfined animal feeding operation having at least 1,000 animal units. Governed by federal and state laws.

Carding -process involving the movement of natural fibres between two surfaces covered with wire pins in order to detangle and align the fibres in preparation for spinning.

Castrate - removal of testes.

cc - cubic centimeter. Same as a millileter (ml).

Cellulose - component of plant cell walls that is not digestible by most animals (lignin)

Cervix - the lower section of the uterus which protrudes into the vagina and dilates during labor to allow the passage of the fetuses.

Coccidiostat - any of a group of chemical agents mixed in feed or drinking water to control coccidiosis in animals.

Colostrum - first milk a ewe gives after birth. High in antibodies, this milk protects newborn lambs against diseases.

Composting - process whereby organic wastes decompose naturally.

Combing - the straightening or parallelizing of fibers using combs. Also includes the removal of short fibers and other impurities.

Concentrate - feed that is high in energy, low in fiber content, and highly digestible.

Conception - in reproduction, the point at which a sperm fertilizes an egg.

Continuous grazing - livestock remain on a grazing unit the entire time in which grazing is allowed.

Cool season plant - a plant that generally makes most of its growth during the late fall, winter, and spring.

Corpus Luteum - the mass of cells that form once the egg has been released from the ovary. The corpus luteum produces progesterone. Also called "yellow body."

Cost share - a subsidization, by different governmental agencies and some private industries.

Crimp - the natural waviness of the wool fiber.

Culling - the process that determines which animals in a herd will not be bred.

Creep feeding - to provide supplemental feed to nursing lambs.

Creep grazing - the practice of allowing young animals to graze areas their dams cannot access at the same time.

Crossbreeding - the mating of animals of different breeds.

Crutching - the removal of wool from around the tail and between the rear legs of a sheep.

Cud - food of a ruminant regurgitated to be chewed again.

Dags - wool contaminated with feces, which is either adhering to or has been clipped from the posterior of sheep.

Dam - the mother.

Diarrhea - increased frequency, fluidity, or volume of fecal excretion.

Dock - to remove the tail (v) or the shortened tail of a sheep (n).

Drench - a method of giving liquid medicine.

Dressing percentage - the percentage of the live animal that ends up as carcass.

Dystocia - difficulty in giving birth or being born.

Eid - annual Islamic festival. There are two major Eids in the Muslim calendar.

Elastrator - instrument used to apply heavy rubber bands (elastrator rings/bands) to the tail and scrotum for docking and castration.

Embryo - an animal in the early stage of development before birth.

Embryo Transfer - implantation of embryos or fertilized eggs into a surrogate mother.

EPD (expected progeny difference) - the expected difference between the performance of an animal's progeny and the average progeny performance of all the animals in the breed.

Epididymitis - tiny tube where sperm collect after leaving the testis.

Estrogen - female sex hormone produced by the ovary. Responsible for the estrus cycle.

Estrus - the period when the female is fertile and receptive to the male. Also called heat.

Estrus Cycle - the reproductive cycle of the female.

Ewe - female sheep

Extra label - use of a drug in a manner for which it was not approved.

FAMACHA© - a parasite control regime for controlling and treating Haemonchus contoritis in small ruminants. Uses an eye anemia chart.

Fat-soluble vitamins - vitamins that dissolve in liquid fat or fatty oils, in addition to water. They include Vitamin A, D, E and K. They are manufactured in the rumen.

Fatten - feed for slaughter. Make fleshy or plump.

Fecal egg count (FEC) - number of worm eggs in a gram of feces. Also called EPG (eggs per gram).

Feedlot - a small area where lambs are confined and fed carefully mixed, high-concentrate feed to fatten them.

Fertilizer - any one of a large number of natural and synthetic materials, including manure and nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium compounds, spread or worked into the soil to increase its fertility.

Fleece - the wool from a single sheep in the shorn grease state.

Flerd - a mixed group of sheep and cattle.

Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) - hormone produced by the pituitary gland which stimulates the production of follicles by the ovary.

Foot bath - chemical and water mixture that sheep stand in, used for the prevention and/or treatment of foot rot and foot scald.

Footrot - contagious disease of sheep caused by specific bacteria

Forage - grasses, small shrubs and other plant material that can be used as feed for livestock. Edible parts of plants.

Forb - broadleafed herbaceous plant (e.g., dandelion).

Forward grazing - one group of animals is allowed access to a paddock ahead of another group.

Genotype - the genetic constitution of an individual.

Gestation - the length of pregnancy.

Gimmer - female sheep over one year of age.

Grade - a measure of quality (n).

Graft - transfer a lamb to a ewe that is not its mother.

Grain - the seed part of cereal crops such as corn, oats, barley, and wheat.

Grass - a group of plants having narrow leaves with parallel veins, small flowers, and basically hollow stems with joints where the leaves are attached.

Grass-based - pasture or grassland play a significant role in the life or diet of the animal.

Green chop - freshly cut forage fed to livestock.

Ground water - water that does not run off, and is not taken up by plants, but soaks down into an aquifer; a supply of fresh water under the earth’s surface which forms a natural reservoir. Is frequently used for drinking.

Gummer - a sheep so old that it has lost all of its teeth.

Haemonchosis - infestation with or disease caused by nematode worms of the genus Haemonchus (esp. H. contortus)

Halal - a set of Islamic dietary laws which regulate the preparation of food.

Hand spinner - a person who spins wool (twists fibers into yarn) by hand.

Hay - grass mowed and cured for use as fodder.

Haylage - grass silage

Heat - estrus. The period when the female is fertile and receptive to the male.

Heavy use area - an outdoor area where livestock are primarily sustained by imported feed.

Hectare - metric unit of area equal to 10,000 square meters, or 2.471 acres

Heterosis - an increase in the performance of hybrids over that of purebreds, most noticeably in traits such as fertility and survivability.

Heritability - the extent to which a trait is influenced by our genetic makeup.

Hogget - a British term for a yearling sheep that has not yet been shorn.

Hoop house - building with an arched metal frame and fabric cover, used to house livestock.

Hormone -a substance that is made by one part of the body but affects another part of the body.

Hull - the dry outer cover of a fruit, seed, or nut.

Hybrid vigor - an increase in the performance of hybrids over that of purebreds, most noticeably in traits such as fertility and survivability.

Hypothermia - a condition of characterized by low body temperature.

Immunity - a natural or acquired resistance to a specific disease.

Inbreeding - Mating or crossing of individuals more closely related that average pairs in the population.

Intramuscular (IM) - into a muscle.

Intraperitoneal (IP) - administered or withdrawn from within the abdominal cavity.

Intravenously (IV) - entering through a vein.

Islam - the religious faith of Muslims, literally, "submission" (to God)

Jug - a pen where a ewe and her newborn lambs are put to bond.

Ked - wingless fly that is an external parasite on sheep.

Ketone - acidic substance produced when the body uses fat, instead of sugar for energy.

Ketosis - metabolic disorder where ketones build up in the body.

Kosher - food prepared in accordance with Jewish dietary laws.

Lactation - the secretion (production) of milk. When the ewe is giving milk.

Lamb - a young sheep (n). To give birth to a lamb (v). The meat from an animal less than one year old (n).

Lanolin - wool "grease." Also called yolk.

Larvae - the immature form of many animals, which hatches from the egg and often differs in appearance from the adult form.

Leader-follower grazing - two classes of livestock having distinctly different nutritional needs are grazed successively in a pasture.

Legume - a plant whose roots form an association with soilborne bacteria that can capture atmospheric nitrogen.

Libido - sexual desire.

Lignin - a component of the cell walls of plants that occurs naturally, along with cellulose.

Linebreeding - the mating of individuals within a particular line.

Live vaccine - a vaccine in which live virus is weakened through chemical or physical processes in order to produce an immune response without causing the severe effects of the disease.

Lutenizing hormone (LH) - The hormone that normally triggers ovulation and stimulates the corpus luteum to secrete progesterone. In the male, it stimulates testosterone production.

Macromineral - an element essential in large quantities. Includes Ca, Mg, P, Na, Cl, and K.

Mastitis - Inflammation of the mammary glands.

Meat and bone meal - the rendered production from animal tissues, including bone.

Microminerals - an element needed in very small quantities. Also called trace minerals. Includes Fe, Co, Cr, Cu, I, Mn, Se, Zn, and Mo.

Micron - one millionth of a meter. Measurement unit for wool fiber diameter.

Milliliter (ml) - a unit of liquid volume in the metric system equivalent to one thousandth of a liter or approximately .03381 fluid ounces in the English system.

Mixed grazing - grazing by two or more species of grazing animals on the same unit of land . Also called multi-species grazing.

Mob - a group of sheep that have been run under exactly the same conditions for the entire growing season.

Moorit - brown.

Morphology - the size and shape of sperm.

Motility -the ability of sperm to move by themselves.

Mottled-faced - having spots or patches of color on the face.

Muslim/Moslem - a member of the Islamic faith.

Mutton - the meat from an older sheep.

NAIS - National Animal Identification System.

NSIP - National Sheep Improvement Program. A computerized genetic evaluation program for sheep.

Necropsy - a postmortem examination.

Nematode - a type of roundworm.

Nutrient management - identifying how the major plant nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium) are to be annually managed for expected crop production and for the protection of water quality.

Omasum - the third part of the ruminant stomach located between the reticulum and the abomasum.

Orf - a viral skin disease affecting sheep and goats. People can contact this disease.

Organic matter - the part of the soil that includes the decomposing remains of plants and animals, as well as the product of complete decomposition, known as humus.

Orthodox - referring to the Eastern Church.

Ova - female sex egg. Also called ovum, oocyte.

Ovulation - the release of mature eggs from the ovary.

Oxytocin - a naturally secreted hormone that is important in milk letdown and the contraction of the smooth uterine muscles during the birthing process.

Paddock - an enclosed area for grazing animals.

Parturition - the act of giving birth.

Pedigree - line of descent of a purebred animal.

Pelt - the skin of a sheep with the wool on.

Perennial plant - plant that lasts three seasons or more.

pH - a value that indicates the acidity of the soil.

Phenotype - the observable characteristics of an individual.

Photoperiod - the relationship between the length of light and dark in a 24-hour period.

Pinkeye - condition in which the conjunctiva (membranes lining the eyelids and covering the white part of the eye) become inflamed or infected. Also called conjunctivitis.

Pizzle - the penis of an animal.

Placenta - the organ that nourishes the fetus(es) in the uterus.

Pneumonia - an infection in the lungs.

Polled - the abscence of horns.

Predator - an animal that lives by killing and eating other animals.

Probiotic - living organisms used to manipulate fermentation in the rumen.

Progeny - the offspring of an individual.

Progesterone - a female hormone secreted by the ovary. Produced in large quantities by the placenta during pregnancy.

Prolific - producing offspring in abundance.

Protozoa - the first animals; the lowliest forms of life, all single-celled.

Purebred - wholly of one breed or line (as opposed to crossbred).

Raddle - color pigment that is applied to the ram's brisket to mark females he mates.

Ram - uncastrated adult male sheep

Ram effect - stimulating non-cycling ewes to ovulate by the sudden introduction of a ram or teaser ram.

Refugia - worms that have not been exposed to anthelmintics and therefore are susceptible to drug treatment.

Reticulum - the second chamber of the ruminant digestive tract, used for sorting out fine plant particles for further fermentation.

RFID - radio frequency identification. Refers to the technology that uses devices attached to objects that transmit data to an RFID receiver.

Ringwomb - failure of the cervix of a ewe to dilate during parturition.

Rotational grazing - a grazing scheme where animals are moved from one grazing unit (paddock) to another.

Roughage - feed that is high in fiber, low in digestible nutrients, and low in energy (e.g., hay, straw, silage, and pasture).

Roundworm -unsegmented worms with elongated rounded body pointed at both ends.

Rumen - the first compartment of the stomach of a ruminant animal. Tts bacteria and protozoa break down cellulose.

Ruminant - an animal with a multiple stomach that is able to digest cellulose.

Safe pasture - pasture that is not infected with worm larvae.

Scouring - the actual separation of dirt, grease, and foreign matter from grease wool.

Scours - diarrhea in livestock.

Scrapie - the TSE of sheep and goats. A fatal brain disease.

Scrotum - pouch in which the male's testicles are suspended outside the body.

Scurs - little horns that have broken the skin, but not grown.

Second cuts - short tufts of wool cut at least twice by the shearing.

Selection - choosing of favorable offspring as parents for future generations.

Selection differential - the difference between the mean of the individuals selected to be parents and the mean of the overall population.

Selection index - a linear combination of phenotypic information and weighting factors used for genetic prediction.

Semen - the combination of sperm, seminal fluid, and other male reproductive secretions.

Shear - the act of cutting wool.

Sheath - an enveloping structure or covering enclosing an animal organ or part.

Shed lambing - Housing ewes and newborn lambs in pens or sheds to provide food, shelter, and medical care during and immediately after birth.

Silage - fodder (livestock feed) prepared by storing and fermenting green forage plants in a silo.

Sire - the father.

Skirting - removing the stained, unusable, or undesirable portions of a fleece.

Slime graft - rubbing the fetal fluids and membrane of a ewe's lamb onto a lamb that you wish to graft onto her.

Smut-faced - blackface x whiteface

Somatic cell count - the number of white blood cells per milliliter of milk or measurement of the number of somatic cells present in a sample of milk.

Sperm - male reproductive cells.

Spin - work natural fibers into thread or yarn.

Staple - refers to the length of a lock of shorn wool; in the trade, "staple" refers to the longer length wools within a grade.

Stillborn - showing no signs of life at birth.

Stocking density - the relationship between the number of animals and area of land at any given time.

Stocking rate - the number of specific kinds and classes of animals grazing a unit of land for a specified period of time.

Stockpiled forage - forage that is allowed to accumulate for later grazing.

Straw - the stems of wheat, barlely, or oat plants which are cut and baled and often used for animal bedding. Sometimes, straw is fed to animals.

Strip grazing - confining animals to an area of grazing land to be grazed in a relatively short period of time.

Stun - make senseless.

Subcutaneous (sub-Q, SQ) - under the skin.

Sustainable agriculture - an approach to growing food and fiber which is profitable, uses on-farm resources efficiently to minimize adverse effects on the environment and people, preserves the natural productivity and quality of land and water, and sustains vibrant rural communities.

Tapeworm - ribbonlike flatworm that is parasitic in the intestines of vertebrates.

Teaser - ram that have been surgically altered in a way that prevents him from reproducing.

Testosterone - a hormone that promotes the development and maintenance of male sex characteristics.

Top - a strand of longer fibers that have been straightened, made parallel and separated from the shorter fibers by combing.

Topdress - a process that means apply to the top.

Total Digestible Nutrients (TDN) - standard system for expressing the energy value of feeds.

Tup - British term for an uncastrated adult male sheep.

Udder - the milk secreting organ of a cow or sheep.

Ultrasound -a procedure in which high-energy sound waves (ultrasound) are bounced off internal tissues or organs and make echoes.

Urea - chief end product of mammalian protein metabolism.

Uterus - the organ in the female in which the fetuses develop. The womb.

Vaccine - injection given to animals to prevent or cure diseases.

Vagina - the canal that forms the passageway from the uterus to the outside of the body. The birth canal.

Vegetable matter - any material of plant origin found in the fleece, such as burrs, stickers, chaff and seed heads.

Vegetative - in developmental stages of plant growth. Non-reproductive plant parts, i.e. leaf and stem; in contrast to reproductive plant parts, i.e. flower and seed.

Warm season plant - a plant that makes most of its growth during late spring, sumer, or early fall and is usually dormant in winter.

Weaning - removal of young mammals from their source of milk.

Weed - a plant that is growing where it is unwanted.

Wet graft - immersing the lamb to be grafted, along with the ewe's own lamb, into a saturated salt solution.

Wether - a male sheep that has been castrated as a lamb.

Withdrawal period - the time when a drug must not be administered prior to marketing to insure that no drug residues remain in the meat or milk.

Wool pool - a collection point for many producers to sell their wool.

Woolen - yarn made from fibers that are one to three inches in length and that have been carded only. Fabrics of woolen yarn are characterized as being fuzzy, thick, and bulky.

Worsted - wool yarn of long staple with fibers that have been combed prior to spinning. Combing produces more parallel fibers than carding.

Yearling - an animal between 1 and 2 years of age.

Yoe - slang term for an adult female sheep.

Zero grazing - a method of raising livestock in pens or small corrals where most of their fodder is grown elsewhere and carried to the pen.

Zoonoses - a disease that is transmissible between humans and animals.

Why choose Kind Horn Farm?

Thu, 03 Apr 2025 20:48:47 GMT

Kind Horn Farm specializes in certified organic Icelandic sheep for sale for breeding stock, fiber, and grass fed lamb. We were the first farm in the US to acquire certified organic status with an Icelandic sheep flock. Our farm has the largest certified organic flock of Icelandics in the United States and Canada. Kind Horn Farm is the only Icelandic sheep farm in the United States raising a flock that is both CERTIFIED ORGANIC AND REGISTERED with the Canadian Livestock Records Association. We offer certified organic breedstock, certified organic fiber, and certified organic grass-fed lamb.

We strive to be one of the premier breeders of Icelandic sheep in the United States and Canada. Kind Horn Farm is actively breeding the "super sires" from Iceland using artificial insemination and our flock offers super diverse genetics and high percentages of AI lines in our pedigrees. This translates to top quality animals for breeding stock with excellent meat scores, above average fertility, superb milking qualities in the ewes, and, of course, amazing fleeces. We are enrolled in the United States Scrapie Program, Export Status, which allows us to export both ewes and rams to Canada. Our flock is very healthy, with no history of foot rot, OPP, Johnes, CL, etc.

Do you have an organic farm and are looking to get into Icelandic sheep? Are you starting an organic farm? Kind Horn Farm can supply you with already certified organic Icelandic sheep for breeding stock. Immediately you will have certified organic animals to provide you with breeding stock to sell, organic fiber, and organic lamb. No waiting period and no mixed flock of some non-organic and some organic. Purchasing your starter flock from Kind Horn Farm also guarantees you ongoing mentoring in organic methods of sheep farming.

Other important reasons to choose Kind Horn Farm for your Icelandic breeding stock:

* Diversity of our genetics. Our flock was started with 16 completely unrelated sheep and we continue to bring in more and more different genetic lines with new rams and with the AI genetics from Iceland. Fall 2009, we used 4 rams at breeding season and this coming year we will use our farm rams plus do our own AI -- adding many additional genetics from Iceland. Fall 2013, we used 6 AI "super sires" from Iceland and 5 stellar farm bred rams.

* Excellence of our genetics. All of our foundation ewes have very nice AI backgrounds. Since 2009, ,we have been doing our own artificial insemination with our ewes using imported semen from Iceland. These Icelandic super sires have the best genetics available and we have seen excellent results in our lambs, with improved muscling especially.

* We are strongly breeding for parasite resistance, fast growing and well muscled lambs, mothering and lambing qualities, and superior fleece. In addition, we are looking for calmer temperaments and excellent overall health in our flock.

* Our flock is free of the major health issues: Foot rot, Johnes, CL and OPP. We are also in the U.S. Voluntary Scrapie Program.

* Canadian buyers, please note: We are now exporting both ewes and rams to Canada.

* Included in the cost of our breeding stock is a veterinary health inspection. This health check is a your guarantee that you receive animals that are in top condition. We feel that this is an important service for our buyers.

We are passionate about our Icelandic Sheep and about raising them organically. Our farm works in harmony with nature. Our pastures are maintained without the use of chemical fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides, or other non-healthy materials. Our animals are lovingly raised without the use of antibiotics, chemical dewormers, or synthetic growth hormones and we raise only grass-fed lamb. We practice MIG (rotational grazing) during the grazing months and during winter months our sheep are free to roam outdoors 24 hours a day.

Why organic ? Our reasons for farming organically are many. Basically though, we feel that organic farming is the healthiest choice-- even though it takes a little more work. Farming organically keeps our soil, air and water and food supply clean and provides a healthy farm environment. Organic farming makes healthy land, healthy animals, healthy food, and a healthy planet.

How do I condition score my sheep?

Thu, 03 Apr 2025 20:48:47 GMT

"Scoring" is a method used to determine the body conditon of your sheep. I will provide links here to a couple of good sites with nice explanations of condition scoring. Remember in scoring Icelandic sheep that they carry less fat on their back, and more fat on their belly. So, when feeling the spine, adjust your scoring a bit for this.

Condition Scoring Sheep with Adam Henson

http://www.case-agworld.com/cAw.IU.framescore.html

http://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:T1XcZMNSSLQJ:www.australianboergoat.com.au/index2.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_view%26gid%3D31%26Itemid%3D27+condition+scoring+sheep&hl=en&gl=us&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjFSIh-X8pAbsLxtXo_MXgn_pQ5wQ5JUB-A-5nVnO868YlcN0JAfH6y_1z48pPmVosxgfyjjoCrP6qtWEtzozD7D8xsmIn4-gPm6Rx93az_PjTVQbkiLWWOK2_hJ-tWZKlNVpYH&sig=AHIEtbQxYzm71yW8x7cyPiVIlaXhhqoOXQ

What is Line Breeding?

Thu, 03 Apr 2025 20:48:46 GMT

Line Breeding is a breeding technique used to protect certain family traits within a family line. Line breeding is a system of breeding in which the degree of relationship is less intense than in inbreeding and is usually directed towards keeping the offspring related to some highly prized ancestor. The degree of relationship is not closer than half-brother half-sister matings or cousin matings, etc. Line breeding is a mild form of inbreeding. Here at Kind Horn Farm, we do not line breed all that much as one of our goals is genetic diversity, but we do use this strategy at times. The following article explains line breeding very well. I am providing some other links below to other excellent articles on line breeding.

Line Breeding vs. Inbreeding Excellent short article by Boyer Land and Livestock

Why Organic?

Thu, 03 Apr 2025 20:48:45 GMT

Source: Alan Greene, MD (Organic Trade Association) , Bob Scowcroft (Organic Farming Research Foundation) , Sylvia Tawse (Fresh Ideas Group)

1. Reduce The Toxic Load: Keep Chemicals Out of the Air, Water, Soil and our Bodies
Buying organic food promotes a less toxic environment for all living things. With only 0.5 percent of crop and pasture land in organic, according to USDA that leaves 99.5 percent of farm acres in the U.S. at risk of exposure to noxious agricultural chemicals.

Our bodies are the environment so supporting organic agriculture doesn’t just benefit your family, it helps all families live less toxically.

2. Reduce if Not Eliminate Off Farm Pollution
Industrial agriculture doesn’t singularly pollute farmland and farm workers; it also wreaks havoc on the environment downstream. Pesticide drift affects non-farm communities with odorless and invisible poisons. Synthetic fertilizer drifting downstream is the main culprit for dead zones in delicate ocean environments, such as the Gulf of Mexico, where its dead zone is now larger than 22,000 square kilometers, an area larger than New Jersey, according to Science magazine, August, 2002.

3. Protect Future Generations
Before a mother first nurses her newborn, the toxic risk from pesticides has already begun. Studies show that infants are exposed to hundreds of harmful chemicals in utero. In fact, our nation is now reaping the results of four generations of exposure to agricultural and industrial chemicals, whose safety was deemed on adult tolerance levels, not on children’s. According to the National Academy of Science, “neurologic and behavioral effects may result from low-level exposure to pesticides.” Numerous studies show that pesticides can adversely affect the nervous system, increase the risk of cancer, and decrease fertility.

4. Build Healthy Soil
Mono-cropping and chemical fertilizer dependency has taken a toll with a loss of top soil estimated at a cost of $40 billion per year in the U.S., according to David Pimental of Cornell University. Add to this an equally disturbing loss of micro nutrients and minerals in fruits and vegetables. Feeding the soil with organic matter instead of ammonia and other synthetic fertilizers has proven to increase nutrients in produce, with higher levels of vitamins and minerals found in organic food, according to the 2005 study, “Elevating Antioxidant levels in food through organic farming and food processing,” Organic Center State of Science Review (1.05)

5. Taste Better and Truer Flavor
Scientists now know what we eaters have known all along: organic food often tastes better. It makes sense that strawberries taste yummier when raised in harmony with nature, but researchers at Washington State University just proved this as fact in lab taste trials where the organic berries were consistently judged as sweeter. Plus, new research verifies that some organic produce is often lower in nitrates and higher in antioxidants than conventional food. Let the organic feasting begin!

6. Assist Family Farmers of all Sizes
According to Organic Farming Research Foundation, as of 2006 there are approximately 10,000 certified organic producers in the U.S. compared to 2500 to 3,000 tracked in 1994. Measured against the two million farms estimated in the U.S. today, organic is still tiny. Family farms that are certified organic farms have a double economic benefit: they are profitable and they farm in harmony with their surrounding environment. Whether the farm is a 4-acre orchard or a 4,000-acre wheat farm, organic is a beneficial practice that is genuinely family-friendly.

7. Avoid Hasty and Poor Science in Your Food
Cloned food. GMOs and rBGH. Oh my! Interesting how swiftly these food technologies were rushed to market, when organic fought for 13 years to become federal law. Eleven years ago, genetically modified food was not part of our food supply; today an astounding 30 percent of our cropland is planted in GMOs. Organic is the only de facto seal of reassurance against these and other modern, lab-produced additions to our food supply, and the only food term with built in inspections and federal regulatory teeth.

8. Eating with a Sense of Place
Whether it is local fruit, imported coffee or artisan cheese, organic can demonstrate a reverence for the land and its people. No matter the zip code, organic has proven to use less energy (on average, about 30 percent less), is beneficial to soil, water and local habitat, and is safer for the people who harvest our food. Eat more seasonably by supporting your local farmers market while also supporting a global organic economy year round. It will make your taste buds happy.

9. Promote Biodiversity
Visit an organic farm and you’ll notice something: a buzz of animal, bird and insect activity. These organic oases are thriving, diverse habitats. Native plants, birds and hawks return usually after the first season of organic practices; beneficial insects allow for a greater balance, and indigenous animals find these farms a safe haven. As best said by Aldo Leopold, “A good farm must be one where the native flora and fauna have lost acreage without losing their existence.” An organic farm is the equivalent of reforestation. Industrial farms are the equivalent of clear cutting of native habitat with a focus on high farm yields.

10. Celebrate the Culture of Agriculture
Food is a ‘language’ spoken in every culture. Making this language organic allows for an important cultural revolution whereby diversity and biodiversity are embraced and chemical toxins and environmental harm are radically reduced, if not eliminated. The simple act of saving one heirloom seed from extinction, for example, is an act of biological and cultural conservation. Organic is not necessarily the most efficient farming system in the short run. It is slower, harder, more complex and more labor-intensive. But for the sake of culture everywhere, from permaculture to human culture, organic should be celebrated at every table.

Why Grassfed?

Thu, 03 Apr 2025 20:48:44 GMT

GRASSFED QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1. What is grassfed?

The American Grassfed Association defines grassfed products from ruminants, including cattle, bison, goats and sheep, as those food products from animals that have eaten nothing but their mother’s milk and fresh grass or grass-type hay from birth to harvest – all their lives. For grassfed non-ruminants, including pigs and poultry, grass is a significant part of their diets, but not the entirety of their diets, since these animals need to consume grains. Many products have been, and continue to be, marketed as “grassfed”, when grass is only a part of their diet. This lack of standardization on grassfed products is just one of the reasons the American Grassfed Assocation is pushing hard for strict U.S. Department of Agriculture guides on grassfed marketing claims.

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2. What kinds of products are grassfed?

A: Virtually any air-breathing food animal can be raised partially or entirely on grass. The most common products are beef, bison, lamb, goat, pork, poultry, eggs and dairy (milk, butter and cheese).

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3. What are the advantages of grassfed products?

A: Grassfed animal products have been shown to be higher in beta carotene (Vitamin A), conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), and Omega-3 fatty acids, which are important in reducing cholesterol, diabetes, cancer, high blood pressure and other life threatening diseases. These products are lower in fat, cholesterol and calories. In addition, the risk of infection by E. coli in these products in virtually eliminated.

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4. What are the disadvantages of grassfed products?

A: A disadvantage for grassfed meat producers is that animals raised entirely on grass mature more slowly, lengthening the production time of grassfed products. A disadvantage for the consumer is that true grassfed products are not available in all the retail outlets, making it necessary for the consumer to find and purchase directly from a producer. Among the goals of the American Grassfed Assocation is to help consumers find grassfed products.

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5. Where can I buy grassfed products?

A: Many consumers find it best to buy grassfed meats directly from the producer. Specialty grocery stores also carry them, and even mainstream supermarkets are beginning to carry these products. However, consumers need to be aware that there is not yet a standard for classifying a product as grassfed.

6. How can I be certain the product is truly grassfed?

A: For now, the best way to ensure that the product is truly grassfed is to talk with with the rancher or farmer who raised the animal. The American Grassfed Association is working to establish a legal definition of exactly what constitutes grassfed and to allow only the products meeting the criteria to be so labeled. In the very near future, consumers will be able to purchase products from certified American Grassfed Association producers, which will be identified with the American Grassfed Association’s trademarked marketing logo.

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7. What is the American Grassfed Association?

A: Established in 2003, the American Association membership is comprised of producers of all types of grassfed livestock, professionals in education, health, food service and other related industries, and consumers. The goal of the association is to promote the grassfed industry through government relations, research, concept marketing and public education.

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8. What are the activities of the American Grassfed Association?

A: The American Grassfed Association undertakes a wide variety of activities aimed at promoting the grassfed industry. Among its top priorities is working with the U.S. Department of Agriculture to establish a legal definition for grassfed, and to implement a labeling program that benefits producers to acquire a premium for products that meets the criteria, while providing a service to consumers wishing to buy grassfed products. The association, through distribution of news releases and media relations activities, communicates the value of grassfed products to associated industries and consumers. The association also provides a network within its membership to share information and market products.

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9. Who may join the American Grassfed Association?

A: The American Grassfed Association is comprised of producers, professionals and health-minded consumers. Those interested in membership can click here for an application , or call 1-877-774-7277.

Icelandic Sheep — The Marketers Dream: The Entrepreneurial and Business Aspects of Raising Icelandic Sheep in North America

Tue, 25 Mar 2025 13:45:09 GMT

We make our entire living without "off-farm" income, a rarity we are told. We do it with Icelandic sheep, a breed that has recently become available in the United States for the farmer / entrepreneur who wants an animal that fits management Intensive Grazing (MIG) and produces products that fill high value niche markets. This breed comes from Iceland where it has been raised in isolation for 1000 years and has provided meat, milk and fiber for the Viking and Celtic peoples that settled there.

Today's Icelandic Sheep are not a remnant of years past but a viable commercial breed numbering 450,000 and are the only breed of sheep in Iceland. The animals provide 1/4 of the agricultural output and 50% of Iceland's meat needs. Products produced by this breed are known and marketed worldwide and are highly esteemed.

The meat is light flavored and fine textured, has no "muttony" taste and is featured in 5 star restaurants.

The pelts look like soft silky fox furs and top the world market, being used by the garment industry and interior decorators. The naturally colored dual coated fleece is made into the world famous warm and soft Icelandic sweaters and spun into Lopi yarn that has been Americas favorite knitting yarn for many years. In addition it is among the best fleeces for felting and is fast gaining popularity with felters and fiber artists. Icelandic sheep were also used as a dairy animal in Iceland up until 40 years ago as they are excellent milk producers. A farmstead cheese was made then call skyr.

Because the breed was developed over 1000 years in isolation and had to endure severe subsistence living conditions, only the hardiest animals survived. The sheep were traditionally wintered over for 6 months on the equivalent of 2 small square bales of hay, winter grazing and that managed to survive and thrive were very healthy, hardy and disease resistant. Since the growing season is short in Iceland and hay scare, the sheep had to lamb in sync with the seasons. Lambing took place in May and a marketable lamb was produced by mid Sept./Oct. when the grass growth stopped. Since there was no extra feed to spare for lambs that needed more time to mature, the Icelanders selected for animals that would make rapid early gains.

Since the breeding season doesn't start until mid November and the lambs reach marketable finish weight by Sept./Oct., then the ram lambs need not be castrated because they are butchered before the extra male breeding hormone adversely affect the flavor of the meat. Not only does this decrease the work load for the shepherd at lambing time by doing away with the lambing chore, but the extra testosterone produced by the "intact" ram lambs increase their daily weight gain naturally. Modern breeds of lambs , by contrast, are banded or castrated at birth because they take 7 to 12 months to reach finish weight and in this time, they cycle through a breeding season. If left intact as rams during their natural early breeding season, the meat would take on an unpleasant flavor.

What does all this mean for the farmer/entrepreneur, and how does this fit into a MIG program?

Livestock breeders are just rediscovering the value of having animals that produce in sync with their natural rhythms and the normal growing season, and what it all means to their bottom line thanks to the to decreased reliance on stored feed and additives (Stockman Grass Farmer!) . The early spring grass flush is the perfect feed needed for ewes in late gestation as it is high in protein and low in fiber. This means that it goes through the digestive system fast and so the ewe can eat more of it and obtain the protein and nutrients she needs. Because the lambs take up a lot of space in her body cavity, it is important that she has this fast, high turnover of high quality feed. The Icelandic ewe has a huge rumen and is able to utilize this high quality but water filled spring growth. In comparison, modern breeds that have been developed by feeding heavy amounts of an expensive grain, lack the rumen capacity needed to thrive on grass alone and are therefore grain dependent.

Icelandic sheep are aggressive foragers that graze longer and forage widely, utilizing all of the available pasture. They do not generally lose body condition even during the hot humid temperatures of summer. The ewes and lambs will graze during the night to make up for shading up during the hottest parts of the day. We get temperatures of 100 to 104 degrees with up to 77% humidity, intermittently during the summer here in Miles City, Montana. There was no grain raised on the island nor was any imported for animal feed, so the sheep had to be able to produce and thrive on grass and hay alone. From this harsh environment, there developed a 160 to 200 pound short stocky, well muscled, medium sized sheep that would lamb in the spring on grass, milk heavily so that lambs would grow fast, and them make rapid weight gains as soon as the lambs were weaned in the fall. In order to achieve this, the breed developed very large rumens in order to process increased amounts of forage to meet the needs of the ewe and her lambs. They also developed aggressive and tireless foraging habits. The breeding season for these sheep starts in mid Nov. and is spaced nicely to give the ewe 2 months between weaning time and breeding time, in order for the ewes to regain their ideal body weight and be in a good condition to conceive.

celandic sheep also developed a long warm, fine, soft, dual coated fleece to combat the cold windy, rainy, snowy climate. The long outer fiber is strong and wear resistant, not unlike mohair and sheds rain and dirt well. It is not subject to much damage from rain and sun. The soft downy undercoat provides loft for the outer coat and keeps the animal warm and dry. The fleece comes in a wide range of natural colors and patterns including blue black, inky black, brown black, snow white, cream, tan apricot, taffy, coffee, chocolate, dark chocolate, silver gray, lilac gray, blue gray, champagne and oatmeal. In addition there are parti-colored or "pintos" as well as those that have an undercoat of a different color than the outer coat, which produces a true tweed yarn.

No other natural wool fiber has as wide a color range and such versatility. The two different fibers can be spun together to produce a yarn that is similar to a mohair/wool blend and can be used in sweaters/socks and outer garments. The easily separated outer coat called tot was used by the Vikings for weaving their sails, tapestries, rugs, rope, saddle blankets, boot coverings and embroidery thread. The soft fine undercoat called thel, was used for soft next-to-the skin wearables, baby clothes, underwear and fine fancy work. The wool was also made into a wide range of felted items, from hats to mittens and boots. The combination of long strong fibers and short fine ones as well as a fast felting time makes this one of the worlds best felting fibers.

Icelandic lambs make fast early gains on their mothers excellent milk supply. Since young lambs make the most efficient gains at an early age, having an abundant rich milk supply from their mothers allows them to gain weight very fast (3/4 to 1 pound/day). They are ready for market in 4 to 5 months at the exact time of year that the grass growth slows to a halt in the fall. This allows the MIG farmer to sell the lambs at that time in order to save valuable stockpiled or stored feed for wintering the ewe flock instead of growing out the lambs on this feed. Gains made on grain or stored feed (hay, silage) add to the cost of gain considerably. The lowest cost per pound of grain is for animals harvesting rapidly growing pastures mixtures (clover, grasses, forbs). So an Icelandic market lamb that has made all of his gain on grass harvested by his mother and by himself is the most profitable. Icelandic market lambs finish at 90 to 110 lbs. in 4 to 5 months on good pasture and mothers milk alone. No creep feed needed.

Rams are extremely fertile, have a high libido and easily settle their ewes. We consistently lamb out 99% of the flock in a 20 day period. Icelandic ewes are early maturing and can be bred to lamb as yearlings. We get a 129% lambing rate on yearling ewes.

These sheep are long lined and can produce into their 13th year. One farmer we met in Iceland told us of a 16 year old ewe in his flock that had produced twins every year of her life. At age 16 she produced a single and he culled her! The ewes are reliable twinners, occasionally producing triplets. The national lambing average is 182%, our adult ewes produce 204%. Ewes don't need flushing to let down at least 2 eggs during the breeding season but have a gene similar to the Boorula-multiple-birth-gene that automatically causes multiple eggs to be produced and let down. While extremely prolific breeds that produce 3 or more lambs are attractive from the standpoint of multiple lambs produced per ewe, the lambs from these births are smaller and take a higher amount of management skills, barns, labor and feed. In addition, extra feed and time is also needed to get the lambs to market weight. These triplets, quads and quints take longer to reach a finish weight and don't fit into the general growing season and therefore are unsuitable for efficient least cost MIG. Icelandic sheep by comparison, reliably produce 2 good strong lambs that are pasture lambed with little or no assistance and reach finish weight during the normal growing season and so are therefore suitable for large low input, low maintenance flocks.

Icelandic ewes have a 5 day shorter gestation period and therefore produce a smaller sized lamb.

Ketosis and foot rot are unknown, prolapse is rare. Hundreds of years of a harsh survival environment have eliminated the weak ones. In addition, the North American flock is scrapie and Opp free.

The smaller 5# to 7# size decreases lambing problems. The lambs are also vigorous and jump right up and nurse minutes after birth. Their naturally short tails means no tail docking is needed. Pasture lambing is well suited for this breed. Simple shelters are all that are needed in case of bad weather. No lambing jugs nor all night vigils needed. The shepherd can get a good nights rest and be prepared for the next days work. When left to themselves, most of my Icelandic ewes lamb at first light. By the time I arise in the morning, the lambs are newly born.

The sheep are easily trained to electric fence and are easy to contain. They are not generally fence jumpers.

I go and do a quick pasture check to make sure all is well. After breakfast, I return to the fields to eartag, clip the navels and feel the lambs tummies to make sure that they have eaten. I don't strip teats and rarely have a problem with plugged teats. Ewes that are having problems will usually let you quietly approach and help out. Rarely do I have to assist. The ewes are excellent mothers in every way. Rejected or bum lambs are rare.

So what are the drawbacks to this breed?

The high initial cost of $500 to $1,000 each is the main drawback for most folks. The high price reflects the rarity of the breed right now in this country. While this is a hefty price, you can expect to sell the offspring at a similar price. Since the ewe lambs breed their 1st year, you can expect to have lambs to sell within a years time. Most producers have gotten their investment back within 1 to years. All Icelandic sheep breeders were sold out last year! Eventually however, the price for breeding stock will go down as the numbers come up. The sheep however will still be highly valued as they will be able to out-compete modern grain dependent breeds. If you don't have enough money for a purebred flock, you can still breed Icelandic traits into your flocks by buying and using Icelandic rams on your commercial flock. Those who have done so have had rave reviews and are realizing good profits from breeding stock (crossbred ewes), colorful fleeces, and fast growing vigorous crossbred lambs.
Because this is a breed that is unknown to the commercial buyers right now, the Icelandic lambs sold at the sale barn for meat may bring a lower price. However, one woman has been selling her extra lambs this way for quite a few years and found that at first she was docked in price for her lambs. Eventually she started to get a premium price from the buyers when they realized the quality of the carcass. Because Icelandic sheep have small round bones, they yield a higher meat to bone ratio. The lambs give a 49% yield.
Likewise commercial wool buyers are not very interested in the Icelandic fleece and so this is not a good market for the fleece. Instead, direct marketing is the way to go with this elegant soft colorful fiber.

What opportunities are here for the entrepreneur?

As always, the most lucrative way to market your products is to sell them directly to the public. Meat can be sold to consumers at farmer markets, restaurants, health food stores, food booths at the county fair and mail order via the internet. You receive all of the middle mans profits for your efforts. Direct marketing takes new skills but is enriching, rewarding and gives you quick feedback as to how your product is received. You also get ideas for new products from your customers. I now offer ram testicles, kidneys, tongues and smoked lamb as a result of customer inquires. One Icelander living in the U.S. wanted a single whole head, a product that is very popular in Iceland. Entrepreneurial skills are also needed to direct market your pelts and fiber. These skills are not hard to learn, it just takes doing it!

The lovely soft lustrous pelts almost sell themselves. The wool can be sold mail order through spinning magazines, by being a vendor at a Fiber Fest or via the internet. This lovely colorful versatile fiber is fast gaining popularity with hand spinners, weavers, and felters. The raw fleece brings $5 to $8 per pound for adult fleece and $15/lb for lamb fleece. Adults produce a total of 6-8 lbs/year. Because of the low amount of lanolin, this is equivalent to 8.5 to 11.3 lbs of raw fleece from a commercial breed where 1/2 of the weight is in the lanolin. The sheep are sheared 2x/year with the clean fall clip sold to spinners and the spring clip processed and sold to felters.

Icelandic sheep give you so many ways to go in product marketing. First of all your ewe will usually have twins. I expect to get $100 profit from the meat and $55 profit from each fleece or pelt. ($155/lamb x 2 lambs = $310) You can pasture 5 to 7 ewes and her lambs on the same amount of pasture/hay that it takes to support 1 cow and her calf. that cow's calf may sell for $400-$600.

Compare that to the potential from 5 ewes that would yield $1550. Now, I can value add that fleece by making felt hats that we can sell for $100 to $125 each. The 4 pounds of lamb fleece will yield 2.68 lbs of cleaned carded fiber which will make 5 hats. (5 x $100 = $500 x 2 lambs = $1,000) for the fleece from 2 lambs and $200 profit from the meat = $1,200. Income form 1 ewe! In addition, her fleece pays for part of her winter hay. It would not take very many sheep to support a farm family if you value added the fleece. You can also value add the meat by setting up a food booth at your county fair and use your lamb in shish kabobs, lamb pitas or the like.

We got in the hat business quite by accident and public demand. My husband is a hat person. he has a collection of his 100 "essential" hats that he wears daily, some of which he has designed and made himself. When he discovered how easily the Icelandic fiber felts, he was eager to try and make a hat for himself. After a few attempts, he finally made one that suited him using a 100 year old top hat mold. He started wearing the multi-colored hat to town and got so many folks wanting one that he made a few for sale.

He now makes hats in the winter months and is usually sold out with little or no marketing. If you want to see what they look like you can visit out web site www.icelandicsheep.com . The Icelandic sheep wool felts quickly in 20 minutes or so unlike fiber from other breeds that can take up to 2 hours to work up a finished product.

Some other products that we are exploring are spinning and felting videos, semen sales, customer yarns, sheep note cards, wool socks, felted vests, boots, mittens, rugs etc. , marketing the long outer coat and inner fibers separately, horn buttons and knife handles.

I know of no other breed of livestock that is more well suited for management intensive grazing and has more opportunity for income profits coupled with low maintenance, low labor inputs and for making a living from the farm. We are grateful to be doing just that.

Icelandic Sheep: Breed History and Facts

Tue, 25 Mar 2025 13:45:08 GMT

The Icelandic sheep is one of the world's oldest and purest breeds of sheep. Throughout its 1100 years of history, the Icelandic breed has been truly triple-purpose, treasured for its meat, fiber and milk.

The Icelandic breed is in the North European short-tailed group of sheep, which exhibits a fluke-shaped, naturally short tail. To ensure the continuing purity of the breed, tail docking an Icelandic will disqualify it from being registered in North America. Icelandics are a mid-sized breed with ewes averaging 120-145 pounds, and rams averaging 165-220 pounds. Conformation is generally short legged and stocky. The face and legs are free of wool. The fleece is dual-coated and comes in white as well as a range of browns, grays and blacks. There are both horned and polled strains. Left unshorn for the winter, the breed is very cold hardy.

Ewes are seasonal breeders, most coming into heat in late October. They will continue cycling until spring if not bred. Rams are sexually active year round, and the ram lambs can start breeding at 5-6 months.

Lambs mature early and ewe lambs commonly lamb at 11-12 months of age. Icelandic ewes are bred as lambs, and many remain productive until age 10 or longer.

Prolificacy is quite good, on average 175-220%. Triplets are not uncommon and many Icelandic ewes are very capable of nursing triplets without assistance. A gene has been found in the Icelandic breed that causes multiple births of triplets, quads, quints and even sextuplets, if the ewe carries two copies of the gene. One copy of the gene causes a milder increase in fertility, resulting primarily in a higher rate of triplets. The Thoka gene, as it is called, is named after the first ewe known to carry the gene. It is similar to the Booroola gene in the Merino sheep.

The lambs are small, twins averaging 6-8 pounds and very lively after an average gestation of 142-144 days, several days shorter than the species average. Lambs are vigorous at birth, a trait that has been shown to carry through in crossbreeding programs. The first lamb born will commonly be up and nursing before the twin arrives. Experienced mothers can have a lamb nursing even before it has gotten to its feet. Lambs are generally strong enough to suck out the wax plug, and are seldom lost to pneumonia. The ewes are excellent mothers with vigorous lambs and suitable for pasture lambing.

Due to their large rumens, and the selective pressures of their history in Iceland, the breed is feed efficient. The animals are cold hardy and have a strong, reactive immune system. The sheep have evolved over 1,100 years under difficult farming conditions in Iceland, with a resultant sturdy and efficient constitution.

A defining quality of the Icelandic breed is the ability to survive on pasture and browse. Historically, Iceland is not a grain producing country due to the climate, and the breed has survived through its thousand year history on pasture and hay. The ewes are supplemented with fish meal when pregnant and most ewe lambs here in North America are supplemented with some protein especially when pregnant. On good grass, meat lambs can be slaughtered directly off the pasture at 5-6 months of age.

The most eye-catching aspect of the breed is the variation of colors and patterns. Genetically, Icelandics have one of two base colors either black or moorit (brown). They exhibit 5 pattern combinations, white, gray, badgerface, mouflon and solid. Individual sheep may also display various shades of these colors/patterns, ranging from white, cream, light gray, tan, caramel, milk chocolate, silver, dark chocolate, dark gray, to jet black. A spotting gene adds even more combinations with many recognized and named patterns of white markings.

From the Iceland Lamb website:

Sheep farming – a cultural heritage

Sheep farming is practiced through-out Iceland, although it is most common in sparsely settled areas. About 2,000 farmers are engaged in sheep farming. Icelandic sheep are short-tailed and belong to a breed formerly common in northwestern Europe, but now only to be found in very few areas of the world. It is a strong, hardy race which has adapted well to Icelandic conditions.

Sheep breeding

Icelandic farmers, along with scientists, have been involved in sheep breeding for decades aiming to produce high quality meat. The breeding is unique in that more than 90% of the sheep stock is registered in a breeding database where scientists and farmers can use the information to improve their production. From the beginning, the main emphasis in the breeding of the Icelandic lamb has been a higher quality of meat. The focus has always been on increased muscle build-up, but during the last two decades, farmers have put an equal effort into decreasing fat. These properties have changed dramatically, especially in the last ten years. Breeding advances have also increased due to the regular use of the country‘s best rams for inseminations across the country.

Lambs are free range

A few weeks after the lambing in May, sheep are sent to run free and graze in mountain pastures until autumn, feeding on the rich and nourishing vegetation. Many farmers formerly allowed their sheep to graze in out- lying pastures over the summer months, but as a result of the recent reduction in flocks, animals are increasingly kept in home pastures.

Gathering in autumn

Farmers gather their flocks in the autumn. Usually, the round-up is carried out on horseback with assistance of sheepdogs.
The process can take up to a week. During this time, participants stay overnight in mountain huts located throughout the highlands. Each sheep farmer has his own earmark in order to identify his livestock. After the gathering, the sheep are all sorted into designated pens, according to earmarks. Many people, farmers or not, come to watch or take part in this event on the last day, which is usually followed by a big celebration the same night. This is a tradition cherished by Icelanders. (End of info from Iceland Lamb website.)

The Icelandic breed is highly prolific -- the ewes are reliable twinners, with triplets fairly common. The breed is valued also because of its "grass based" genetics; the sheep flourish on grass and browse, without need of grain supplementation.

Icelandic sheep are a beautiful and eye-catching breed of sheep with incredible color variations and seventeen possible combinations of colors and patterns. Known around the world for their fiber, the Icelandic sheep provides a soft, lustrous dual coated fleece. Icelandics come in a range of natural colors and patterns which provide lovely wool that is very versatile and easy to spin, making this wool a handspinners delight.

In Iceland, these sheep are bred primarily for meat. The lambs mature in 4-6 months on good pasture and provide a lean, tender, mild flavored meat. Average dressed weight is typically 35-45 pounds.

Icelandics are a very milky breed of sheep, with ewes easily supporting twins and many raising triplets without assistance. Many farms in North America are now milking Icelandics and using the milk for personal use, making yogurt, soap and gourmet, artisan cheeses.

For additional information on hardy, healthy, thrifty Icelandics, visit the Icelandic Sheep Breeders of North America website, www.Isbona.com .

Icelandic Sheep for Premium Fleece

Tue, 25 Mar 2025 13:45:06 GMT

The Icelandic sheep produces a premium fleece. The fleece is dual coated, with a fine, soft undercoat called thel and a longer, coarser outer coat called tog. The tog fiber with a spinning count of 56-60 and a micron count of 27-30, grows to a length of 6-8" in six months. It is lustrous, strong, water- and wear-resistant, and sheds off the rain and weather. Thel is the soft downy undercoat, with a spinning count of 64-70 and a micron count of 19-22, growing to a length of 2-4". The thel provides the loft for the outer coat and insulation for the sheep. Tog grows from the primary hair follicles and the thel from the secondary follicles. Tog is a true wool, and is not a kemp or guard hair. The combination of the two fibers on the sheep gives superb protection from the cold and wet.

Icelandic fleeces are open and low in lanolin. The weight loss when washed is significantly less than many other breeds.

The average adult yearly fleece total weighs 4-7 lbs. Producers often shear their Icelandics twice a year. This is due, in part, to the fact that Icelandics have a natural wool break in late winter for the rams generally, and in spring for the pregnant or lactating ewes. Shearing at or around the time of the natural break is recommended to remove the "old" coat before the "new" coat grows in. The sheep are sheared again in the fall to harvest the fleeces before the animals go on hay for the winter. These fall-shorn fleeces are very soft and clean and can bring a premium price per pound.

The two coats can be separated by hand for special projects, or they may be processed together. The traditional lopi is a lightly spun blend of tog and thel. Thel is very soft and downy, with an irregular crimp and can be used for baby garments, and for the fine shawls in the style of the Wedding Shawl. The tog is similar to mohair; wavy or corkscrewed rather than crimped and is wonderful in worsted spinning.

The versatility of the wool, the ease of spinning and the wide variation of tones and colors are a true delight to handspinners, and put Icelandic wool into the exotic or premium category. It is also known as one of the best fleeces for felting, which is fast gaining popularity in the craft community.

The Icelandic Fleece - a Fibre for all Reasons

by Beth Abbott

Reprinted with permission from Beth Abbott. This article can be seen in the Winter 199O; Volume 33; Number 4 issue of the Bulletin, Magazine of the Ontario Handweavers & Spinners.

What types of yarns can be spun from a fleece with fibres which vary from 3" to 18" in length and from 50's to 70's in count? I was about to find out.

I chose the Icelandic Fleece as a topic for my in-depth study because the first North American flock of these unusual sheep is located just fifteen minutes from my home. Stefania Sveinbjarnardottir-Dignum, owner of the flock, was willing to supply me with fleece and help me with research, as much of the information is in Icelandic. It was an opportunity I couldn’t let pass.

Traditionally, the Icelandic sheep provided for almost all of the Icelanders' needs for meat and fibre, as well as small tools and toys. The fleece, an ancient two-coated style, which comes in a wide variety of colours, has a fine soft undercoat (thel), about 3" long and 65's to 70's count; and a coarser outer coat (tog), up to 18" long and 5O's to 53's count. The long outer coat sheds rain well and the thick soft thel protects the animal from the constant winds of Iceland. The fibre varies over the fleece, from very curly but shorter locks on the back, to very long locks with wavy tog and very Pine soft thel, on the shoulders and sides.

The sheep sheds its fleece and shearing takes place about the time shedding begins. In early July, we saw shearing with the traditional short- bladed knife as well as with the more common electric clippers.

This sheep, quite isolated for centuries from crossbreeding, has remained much as it was when Iceland was being settled in the tenth and eleventh centuries. It survives on rugged volcanic terrain with scattered vegetation. As a result, it is rare to see flocks of sheep on the Icelandic uplands; it is much more common to see a ewe and her lambs, quite alone for some distance.

The sheep are kept close to the farm buildings during the winter and spring months, but in early summer, after shearing, they are put out on the mountain pastures to forage for themselves. They wander and mingle with sheep from other area farms for about three months. In early fall the farmers, on horseback, go out into the mountains to round them up and bring them back to the lowlands.

They are identified by their ear cuts and taken back to the their own farm for winter.

I used the Canadian Icelandic fleece for much of my experimenting but did get some fleece from Iceland as well. Stefania also produced some Icelandic/Canadian cross fleeces which were very pleasant to spin.

I prefer to wash the fleece before spinning as this makes separation of the two coats easier. The most successful washing method is to fill the laundry tub with fairly warm water and Ivory liquid, lay the fleece in a single layer to cover the surface and push down with flat hands. The fleece, after soaking for one to two hours, is drained, squeezed, and rinsed. After blotting with a towel, or spinning in washer, the fleece is laid on a fresh towel to dry.

Because the two coats of the Icelandic fleece were traditionally spun and used separately, I tried separating the coats using a variety of methods. A basic separation is possible by simply holding each end of the lock in the hands and gently pulling. The longest tog fibres separate readily from the thel and can be kept aligned for further processing. The thel will still have a considerable amount of shorter tog hairs which must be removed if a fine, soft yarn is desired. The best method, slow process, is to hold the bundle over a contrasting background and pull out the tog hairs individually, similar to separating guard hairs from musk ox. This was traditionally done by the children in the Icelandic home. The soft thel remaining can be hand carded and pulled from the bottom of the card into a roving which can be spun into a very fine yarn. This was the yarn Icelanders used for intricately patterned mittens, undergarments and other special projects.

The tog hairs, if kept in lock formation) can be prepared and spun using worsted or semi-worsted techniques into strong yarns of varying diameters. The finest and smoothest make good yarns for needlework and the National Museum of Iceland and many small museums around the country have excellent examples. The coarser and buyer yarns were historically used in tough fabrics for wrapping goods as well as sails, ropes and saddle blankets. Today, they would make excellent woven rugs.

Today in Iceland all the yarn spun conunercially is made from the combined coats of the fleece. The commercial yarns, frequently singles, range from very fine 'eingirni', to quite bulky ‘lopi’ style yarn. True ‘lopi’ in Iceland is the unspun roving before it is drawn and twisted into yarn. With the development of woolen mills, farmers sent their fleece to be prepared. It came back as 'lopi', ready for spinning. Icelandic knitters use two or three strands of this roving to knit the bulky patterned-yokc sweaters we now associate with Iceland. Actually these sweaters are a relatively new "tradition", dating back only to the 1920's when an enterprising knitter used the lopi on her knitting machine and later for handknitting. The lopi style yarns exported from Iceland have a small amount of twist (about I twist per inch) added for strength and are somewhat more dense than the true lopi.

I have found that to spin an even diameter lopi-style yarn it is necessary to prepare the fleece very well. This is difficult because of the range in length and diameter of the fibres; the thel fibres tend to produce soft lumps which move to the outside of the yarn and have to be picked off. A drum carder with long teeth works most successfully to distribute the fibres. The batt can be pulled into a roving and wrapped around the hand into a soft ball. A slight twist is easier to insert using a low ratio wheel. It is necessary to work slowly and carefully to get an even yarn. Although this yarn contains the coarse tog fibres, it is relatively soft because of the soft twist.

A standard two-ply knitting worsted weight yarn is also possible from the Icelandic fleece. The longest tog hairs can be removed and the remaining thel/tog combination hand or drum carded and spun into a medium weight two-ply yarn. My sample had a twist angle of about 21degrees and a diameter of 9-10 wraps per inch. Three-ply yarns were also very successful using a mostly thel combination of fibres.

Felt made from the Icelandic fleece ranged from very firm to quite soft but in all cases worked up quickly. Historically, most woven and knitted items in Iceland were felted after construction.

The Icelandic study grew into a much more involved and interesting project than I originally anticipated. The connection between the Icelandic sheep and the history and people of Iceland is fascinating, and having an opportunity to visit the country and see the sheep in their natural environment has increased my understanding of their evolution, and my appreciation of the Icelanders' innovative use of the sheep and its fleece.

The Icelandic fleece offers the Canadian spinner Many opportunities to spin a range of fibre types, using a wide menu of spinning techniques to produce yarns For a variety of projects. I generally prefer to spin the separated coats and would usually take out the longest tog fibres even when spinning a bulky singles or two-ply combination yarn.

I made several samples using these separated yarns in traditional projects as well as some projects more suited to the lifestyle of today's spinners. The fine thel yarns produced mittens knitted in the traditional multi-coloured patterns, resembling the beautiful mittens we saw in the museums in Iceland, though at 10 stitches per inch, mine were not quite as fine as the 16 or more stitches per inch in the museum samples. A baby hat and mitts in a mostly thel yarn from a lamb fleece were successful, but not as soft as Canadians would usually like for infant clothes. While in Iceland we saw many children sporting handknit woolen outfits. Perhaps in a cooler climate the wool does not seem as prickly, and a more thorough separation of the fibres would alleviate this problem. Also, the softer the twist, the softer the yarn, because the tog fibres do not stick out as bristly ends in a softly twisted yarn.

I experimented with the "glit" inlay weaving technique used in the wonderfully elaborate women's saddle blankets in Iceland. A fine two-ply black lamb tog yarn was used in the warp and a softly spun combination singles yarn from the same fleece made the tabby weft. The inlay yarns were fine, dyed, two-ply tog yarns. The lamb tog also made a sucessful needlework yarn for embroidery.

Rug samples in Krokbragd, a weft faced Scandinavian weave, were thick and strong, and, although I probably would not spin the warp for a large rug project, the tog yarn used for the warp was very strong, withstanding the beating and abrasion without a break. A sample of Vadmal woven with a medium weight two-ply yarn produced a thick firm felted cloth after a ten minute machine wash. It would be suitable for a heavy coat or jacket.

Indeed, the Icelandic fleece was an interesting fibre to study and the samples inspired a wide variety of projects. It is easy to see how the Icelanders came to rely on this sheep and its fleece to fill their daily needs of food and clothing.

Icelandic Sheep for Milking

Tue, 25 Mar 2025 13:45:06 GMT

Thinking of milking Icelandic sheep? Certainly it can be done but is this breed a true dairy sheep? In my opinion, the answer is no. In North America, they are used for personal milk production by many shepherds for yogurt and soap. Some farms are making gourmet artisan cheeses. In North America, we have had some successful Icelandic only sheep dairies, but I am not aware of any commercial Icelandic dairies operating currently.

The Icelandic ewes do produce a good quantity of milk, easily supporting twins without assistance. For personal use, it is possible to allow lambs to continue to nurse while milking once per day, without sacrificing lamb growth.

Reprinted from the ISBONA website:

Research from Iceland

The milk production of the ewes depends on many factors, the most important being the quantity and the

quality of forage intake. Also the grazing ewes generally have a higher maintenance requirement than ewes

fed indoors, especially under northern conditions, because of the greater variation in the environmental

temperature, exposure to wind and rain and because of their greater mobility. (Icelandic ewes have to walk

great distances to harvest the sparse forage in Iceland.)

The Icelandic ewes are noted for good milking ability and longevity. A very limited amount of information is,

however, available on the milk production of the Icelandic ewe during grazing. Limited studies covering a 3

year period have been done in zero grazing experiments with ewes fed on grass from a cultivated mire,

fertilized with different rates of nitrogen and or calcium. In the 2-year study, ewes that started with a production

of 2700 grams at 10 days into lactation, decreased production by 11 to 15 grams for each day of the lactation

period, which was 1500 at day 90. The difference in the quantity of milk produced in different years was great

and has not been explained. The quantity difference is even greater than that found between ewes with singles

and twins in earlier experiments when fed indoors on hay and concentrates for approximately two weeks after

parturition.

Limited studies are also available on the chemical composition of the milk of the grazing ewe in Iceland. The

average chemical composition in very limited samples from the zero grazing experiments is:

29 July - protein 5.56%; fat 4.26%; lactose 5.22%

12 August - protein 4.99%; fat 4.95%; lactose 4.95%

3 September - protein 6.21%; fat 6.20%; lactose 4.88%

A few samples have been collected from ewes grazing on a dry mountain shrub land and on lowland mire.

There is not apparent difference in the samples except for the fat, which was relatively high in the mountain

sample: 8.5%

It can be speculated using experimental results from other countries, that during early lactation, the milk

production is relatively independent of the pasture condition, as the ewes can mobilize their body reserves for

energy and protein. This of course depends on the condition of the ewes at parturition. After 4 to 6 weeks of

lactation the ewes depend entirely on the available herbage for their milk production.

Homestead milk production

Whether you are interested in a full-fledged sheep dairy business, some milk for your own homestead cheese

making, or genetics that will produce lambs (crossbred or purebred) that will achieve fast growth on good

forage, consider Icelandic sheep. Icelandic sheep can turn grass into copious amounts of milk, lamb meat and

high value naturally colored wool.

Small Dairy Publication/Resources

CreamLine is a voice for small dairies. This is excellent information for the small dairy producer or

homesteader interested in producing their own dairy products at home. Subscriptions are $22/year. Send to

CreamLine, P.O. Box 186, Willis, VA 24380

http://www.metalab.unc.edu/creamery has a wonderful list of small dairy information and equipment sources.

Icelandic Sheep: Gourmet Lamb, Quality Lean Meat

Tue, 25 Mar 2025 13:45:05 GMT

Though famous throughout the world for wool production, the Icelandic breed is predominately grown for meat in Iceland. Since the cool and wet climate precludes the production of most grains in Iceland, the breed has been selected to bring the meat lambs to slaughter weight off of the summer and fall pastures.

In an environment where con-sumers are increasingly conscious of their health, food must be safe to eat, pure and nutritious. For these reasons, Icelandic lamb meat is becoming recognized throughout the world for its healthy nutritional value and unique taste.

The Icelandic sheep is a direct descendant of the sheep first brought to the island by the Viking settlers. It has not been crossbred by importing other breeds. The cold climate influences the composition of the plants the sheep graze on. The lambs also move freely through extensive wild pastures in pristine mountainous landscapes. This, and the young age at slaughter (4-5 months), gives the meat unique quality and properties. The average carcass weighs around 17 kg (37 lbs.). The muscle has a high proportion of Omega-3 fatty acids and iron, giving the meat its wild game flavour. The distinctive taste is a result of the wild pastures; the grass and the aromatic and spicy herbs on which the lambs graze. Some subtle differences have been noted between the flavour of meat from lambs grazing in the highlands, the lowlands, and by the seashore. The meat is very tender and has a fine texture due to its high amount of red muscle fibres, which is influenced both by the breed and its grazing habits.

The lambs move freely
Tender meat
Fine texture
High proportion of Omega-3 fatty acids
Lambs are 4-5 months old at time of slaughter

Icelandics are very adaptable, and can be handled in a variety of management plans. Here in North America they thrive on grass-based farms where they are rarely fed grain, to dry-lot situations where they are fed daily, and all the management systems in between.

Market lambs will start to reach their ideal slaughter weights of 70-100 pounds at four to five months. With continued access to quality graze, the lambs can be slaughtered directly off the grass all through the fall months. This has positioned the Icelandic breed to fit well in the move towards grass-based farming, enabling “natural” and organic farmers to utilize the Icelandic breed. As meat consumers increasingly recognize the health benefits of grass fed meats, and as economic pressures drive our farmers toward grass-based businesses, the genetics of the Icelandic breed become increasingly valuable to our sheep industry.

The Icelandic breed is considered a mountain breed, and historically mountain breeds have been milder in flavor, and leaner than the lowland breeds. The meat is indeed very tender with a mild flavor, and is generally described as gourmet meat. With the leaner, European style carcass, and the mild flavor, Icelandic lamb can appeal to the palate of even those consumers who avow they "just don't like lamb." With the combination of the economic and market advantages of grass fed farming, and with the appeal of the delicious flavor, the Icelandic breed is a natural for direct-to-consumer marketing.

khf

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